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THE 


REASON  WHY: 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


Giving:  Reasons  for  Hundreds  of  Interesting-  Facts  in  connec 
tion  with  Zoology  ;  and  throwing  lag-ht  upon  the  Pe 
culiar  Habits  and  Instincts  of  the  Various 
Orders  of  the  Animal  Kingdom. 


BY  THE  AUTHOR  OF 


'•••ML  HIBUCAI  REASON  WHY  ;"    "  TUB  BBABOVWltr:  GENERAL  SCIENCK  :"    "  i.NQrrui 
Wiriu.v  ;':    l  THAT'S  IT  :  OR,  PLAIN  TEACHING  ;•'  "  THE  CORNER  i.'.unuukD  ;"  ETO. 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH  NUMEROUS  EXGRAVINGS. 


We  proceed  here  by  the  InducT.ive  Process,  taking  nothing  on  trust,  nothing  for 
granted,  but  reasoning  upwards  from  the  meanest  fact  established,  and  making 
every  step  sure  before  going  one  beyond  it — like  the  engineer  in  his  approaches  to  a 
fortress.  We  thus  gain,  ultimately,  a  roadway,  a  ladder,  by  which  even  a  Child 
may,  almost  without  knowing  it,  ascend  to  the  summit  of  Truth,  and  obtain  that 
immensely  wide  and  extensive  view  which  is  spread  beneath  the  feet  of  the  aston 
ished  beholder. 


NEW   YORK: 
DICK  &  FITZGERALD,  PUBLISHERS, 

No.    18    ANN    STREET. 


BIOLOGY 

LIBRARY 

G 


Cnv  rod  According  to  Act  of  Congress  in  the  year  1860  v?" 

DICK    &    FITZGERALD, 

fu  U.e  Cleric's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  tho  United  States  for    AC  Southern 
District  of  New  York. 


GIFT  OF 


PUBLISHER'S    PREFACE. 


THE  series  of  POPULAR  INFORMATION  volumes  so  happily  introduced  to  the 
great  public  under  the  general  title  of  THE  REASON  WHY,  has  met,  through 
out,  with  such  a  flattering  reception,  that  the  present  valuable  addition  to 
it,  might  well  present  itself  sans  all  preliminaries.  Relieved,  therefore, 
from  the  propitiatory  embarrassments  common  to  most  prefaces,  we  feel 
at  liberty  to  point  out  that  "  THE  REASON  WHY — NATURAL  HISTORY  "  differs 
materially  from  all  other  works  on  the  same  subject,  and  will  be  found  to 
depart  very  agreeably,  in  its  main  characteristics,  from  that  ideal  of  it 
which  the  mind  of  the  reader  would  naturally  set  up  in  advance.  In  other 
words,  it  is  not  a  dry,  formal  disquisition,  on  animated  nature,  (like  many 
useful  things,  very  excellent  and  very  insipid,)  but  a  chatty,  sociable, 
entertaining  combination  of  scientific  facts,  with  illustrative  anecdotes, 
clothed  in  language  that  the  ordinary  reader  will  readily  understand,  and 
made  piquant  to  the  rudest  taste,  by  a  copious  commentary  in  the  shape  of 
pictorial  accompaniments. 

It  will  have  been  observed  that  THE  REASON  WHY,  in  all  its  phases  of 
instruction,  Cn  "  THE  BIBLICAL  RKASON  WHY,"  for  instance,  in  "  INQUIRE 
WITHIN,"  in  "  THAT'S  IT,  or  PLAIN  TEACHING,"  and  so  on,)  has  made  it  a 
special  endeavor  to  so  combine  mental  amusement  with  mental  education, 
that  the  most  indifferent  to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  might  be  tempted 
into  the  pathways  of  learning,  and  discover  themselves  eagerly  gathering 
the  flowers  of  wisdom  while  fancying  that  they  culled  for  pastime,  a  few 
blossoming  weeds  of  quaint  attractiveness.  That  endeavor  has  resulted  in 
a  success  exceeding  all  anticipation,  and  has  bestowed  on  THE  REASON 
WHY  a  popularity  surpassing  its  author's  most  extravagant  estimate.  This 
NATURAL  HISTORY  sequence  has  been  prepared  with  a  careful  eye  to  the 
same  acceptable  peculiarity.  It  is  free  from  everything  calculated  to 
shock  the  most  delicate  sensibility.  It  contains  not  a  line  to  which  the  rigid 
purist  can  take  exception.  It  sedulously  avoids  all  sectarian,  as  well  as  all 
sectional  differences  of  opinion.  It  treats  the  harmonies  of  nature  in  th eu 
ro  anif  old  varieties  of  form  and  animation,  with  an  amiable  conservatism 
admirably  in  unison  with  the  subject ;  and  it  accomplishes  its  purpose  with 
an  engaging  seductiveness  that  is  irresistibly  effective. 


PREFACE. 

"  THEEEASON  WHY — NATURAL  HISTORY,"  will  particularly  commend  itself 
to  most  readers  by  the  conversational  freedom  of  its  style — by  the  bold 
pertinence  of  some  of  its  questions,  and  the  frank,  straightforwardness  of 
its  answers.  It  will  thus  b«  seen  that  it  is  not  a  mere  compilation  of  the 
arid  facts  of  naturalists,  or  a  drowsy  catechism  of  the  wonders  of  this 
branch  of  creation  ;  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  lively  table-talk,  as  it  were, 
between  an  eager,  observant,  curious  inquirer,  and  a  gossippy  friend  thor 
oughly  informed  upon  every  point  on  which  his  friend  is  probing  for  en 
lightenment  and  entertainment.  Besides  the  grand  basis,  therefore,  of 
acknowledged  scientific  truths  relative  to  the  higher  order  of  animal  life, 
(for  the  author  has  been  compelled  to  crowd  Entomology  out  of  this  work, 
and  reserve  it  for  a  future  volume,)  THE  REASON  WHY— NATURAL  HISTORY, 
gives  us  a  vast  accumulation  of  interesting  facts  from  the  private  storehouse 
of  current  experience.  The  interrogatories  are  just  those  which  an  inquisitive 
student  would  be  likely  to  put  to  his  instructor  in  obedience  to  the  sugges 
tions  of  the  text;  but,  they  are  consequently  those  to  which,  in  numberless 
instances,  no  work  extant  could  furnish  him  with  a  satisfactory  reply.  He 
could  obtain  that  reply  from  nothing  but  the  practical  knowledge  of  one 
familiar  with  the  every  day  details,  as  well  as  the  less  common-place  class 
of  information  on  the  subject.  In  this  volume,  all  he  seeks  is  grouped 
before  him.  The  mental  food  he  craves  is  prepaied  to  his  hand,  seasoned 
to  his  taste,  and  exquisitely  fitted  to  his  moral  digestion. 

With  this  brief  allusion  to  the  nature  of  THE  REASON  WHY  in  its  connec 
tion  with  NATURAL  HISTORY,  the  publishers  leave  it  to  the  judgment  of  the 
reader,  confident  of  the  laUer's  gratification,  as  well  as  of  the  merits  of  the 
work.  The  most  erudite  of  us  need,  at  times,  a  brushing  up  of  the  nap  of  that 
old  familiar  knowledge  which,  little  by  little,  gets  trodden  down  by  the  foot  of 
time,  almost  out  of  sight.  The  less  fortunate  require  a  convenient  grasp  at 
such  knowledge,  to  atone  for  early  inexperiences.  The  thoughtless  may  be 
amused  by  it  into  larger  views  of  life.  The  philosopher  will  love  it  as  a 
lesson  in  non-polemical  theology ;  for  he  knows  that : 

"  All  are  but  parts  of  one  stupendous  whole, 
Whose  body  Nature  is,  und  God  tbo  uouL" 


PREFACE. 


THE  present  volume  of  THE  REASON  WHY  is  calculated  to  give 
not  merely  an  increased  interest,  but  a  new  application,  to  the 
science  of  Natural  History.  The  old  system  of  study  compre 
hended  merely  a  description  of  the  external  form,  geographical 
habitation,  and  distinguishing  habits,  of  individual  species.  The 
interest  of  the  subject  mainly  rested  upon  anecdotes  of  animal 
sagacity  or  ferocity,  and  the  perils  of  adventure  into  the  wilds  of 
nature.  Few  writers  had  ventured  to  inquire  into  reasons  for  the 
peculiarities  of  animal  forms,  or  to  seek  Creative  Design  in  their 
wonderful  diversity,  and  mutual  relations. 

In  order  to  bring  together  the  large  number  of  reasons  now 
presented  to  the  reader,  the  Author  has  had  to  wade  througli 
numerous  volumes,  in  many  cases  with  a  barren  result.  The 
works  that  have  been  found  productive  are  enumerated  in  the 
accompanying  list  of  authorities.  Among  those  therein-mentioned, 
PALEY'S  NATURAL  THEOLOGY,  DERHAM'S  PHYSICO-THEOLOGY,  and 
PARTINGTON'S  CYCLOPAEDIA,  merit  the  most  marked  and  grateful 
acknowledgment. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  The  Reason  Why  of 
Natural  History  is  a  mere  compilation.  The  Author  has  from 
boyhood  been  a  close  observer  of  the  habits  of  animals,  and  both 
upon  sea  and  land  he  has  delighted  to  endeavour  to  interpret 
Nature's  works.  Hence  the  conception  of  the  plan  of  this  volume, 
and  the  diversity — perhaps  boldness — of  the  questions  asked. 

The  Author  begs  it  to  be  understood  that  the  limits  of  this 
volume,  and  the  abundant  matter  supplied  by  the  higher 
orders  of  animal  life,  left  no  space  for  the  interesting  facts  of 
Entomology.  It  is  probable  that  at  some  future  time  a  volume 
may  be  added  to  the  Reason  Why  Series,  in  which  that  branch 
of  Natural  History  will  be  fully  treated.  The  Author  cannot 
do  better  than  conclude  this  brief  introduction  by  quoting 
from  the  British  Quarterly  Review  some  admirable  sentiments 
perfectly  relevant  to  the  contents  of  Jie  volume,  and,  indeed, 
to  the  REASON  WHY  Series : — 


Yl  PREFACE. 

"  The  argument  from  design,  as  commonly  presented,  is  cumu 
lative,  it  is  an  induction  from  a  multitude  of  particulars.  Every 
science  furnishes  its  quota  of  materials,  and  every  fresh  step  in 
discovery,  if  it  cannot  make  the  conclusion  more  certain,  adds  new 
splendour  to  the  illustrations  of  it.  Every  being  with  which  we 
are  conversant, — every  limb  and  fragment  of  every  being, — every 
atom  composing  those  fragments — is  found  to  bear  on  it  the  stamp 
of  purpose, — the  very  autograph  of  mind.  It  is  a  means  or  an 
end,  or  both  means  and  end. 

"  But  the  argument  does  not  rest  here.  Innumerable  particular 
instances  irresistibly  indicate  mind  as  the  agency  at  work  in  the 
universe.  Starting  from  this  conclusion,  the  argument  taken  a 
wider  and  loftier  range  ;  and  on  a  contemplation  of  the  com 
bined  phenomena  of  nature,  the  conclusion  is  irresistible,  that 
all  is  the  work  of  one  mind.  Harmony  and  analogy  pervade 
nature.  Part  answers  to  part,  so  as  inevitably  to  suggest 
the  belief  of  a  mighty  whole.  Many  subordinate  purposes 
are  found  combining  as  means  to  the  fulfilment  of  some  higher 
purpose.  As  each  being  ascends  in  the  scale  of  creation,  it 
is  seen  multiplying  its  points  of  analogy  and  harmony  with  the 
rest  of  nature  ;  absorbing  into  itself  a  greater  number  of  subordi 
nate  purposes,  and  rendering  them  subservient  to  its  own  ends. 
The  question  cannot  but  arise,  where  does  this  progression  reach  its 
limit  ?  Are  the  harmonies  which  so  widely  obtain  in  nature,  after 
all,  but  partial,  to  be  supplanted  on  a  wider  acquaintance  by  discord 
or  utter  independence  ;  or  do  not  all  the  parts  of  nature,  number 
less  and  widely  scattered  as  they  are,  constitute  one  vast  and 
accordant  whole  ? 

"These  widely  and  subtilly  interwoven  analogies  and  corres 
pondences,  and  this  scale  of  purpose,  narrowing  as  it  ascends,  do 
they  not  clearly  indicate  that  the  whole  is  built  upon  one  plan,  and 
pervaded  by  a  single  purpose — TeAosKi/piomiTov — to  which  all  the 
rest  are  subordinate,  and  in  which  creation  finds  its  unity,  destiny, 
and  reason? 

"  And  if  so,  What  is  that  purpose  ?  This  stupendous  universe 
cannot  be  a  mere  disjointed  maze  of  particular  contrivance, — a 
labyrinth  of  worlds  leading  nowither, — a  boundless  temple,  without 
altar,  service,  or  in-dwelling  Deity  The  purpose  we  are  in  search 


PREFACE.  dl 

of  must  exist ;  and  nowhere  can  it  be  conceived  to  exist  but  in  the 
'Creator.'  The  depth  saith,  'It  is  not  in  me.'  The  heavens 
declare  not  their  own,  but  their  Maker's  glory ;  '  for  all  are  his 
servants.'  All  lower  ranks  of  being  look  up  to  man  ;  but  man 
himself  looks  up,  demanding  by  the  entire  constitution  of  hk 
being,  some  end  beyond  and  above  himself,  and  is  by  nature  a 
worshipper.  And  when  his  ear  is  opened  to  hear  the  response 
given  to  his  questionings  by  the  very  loftiest  ranks  of  spiritual 
creatures,  that  response  is  one  echoed  from  every  region  and 
limit  of  the  material  universe, — *  Thou  art  worthy,  0  Lord,  to 
receive  glory,  and  honour,  and  praise  ;  for  thou  hast  created  ell 
tilings,  and  for  thy  pleasure  they  are  and  were  created.'" 


LIST    OF    AUTHORITIES 


CONSULTED   AND    QUOTED    IN   THB 


REASON    WHY    NATURAL     HISTORY. 


Bailey's  Habits  of  the  Fish 

Bechstein's  Cage  Birds. 

Bell  on  the  Hand. 

Bell's  British  Reptiles. 

Bell's  British  Crustacea. 

Broderip's  Leaves  from  the  Note  Book 

of  a  Naturalist. 

Buckland's  Curiosities  of  Natural 
Buffon'a  Natural  History.  [History. 
Burnett's  The  Power,  Wisdom,  and 

Goodness  of  God. 
Carpenter's  Physiology. 
Oalmer's  Power,  Wisdom,  and  Good 
ness  of  God. 

Conversations  on  the  Human  Frame. 
Couch's  Illustrations  of  Instinct. 
Crompton's  Birds,  Fishes,  and  Insects. 
Cross's  Physiology  of  Human  Nature. 
Cuvier's  Animal  Kingdom. 
Davis's  Naturalist's  Practical  Guide. 
Davy's  Salmonia. 
Davy's  Researches. 
Dixon's  Domestic  Poultry. 
Donovan's  Natural   History  of  British 

Insects. 
Donovan's  Natural   History  of  British 

Quadrupeds. 

Eclwanls's  Influence  of  Physical  Agents. 
Elliotson's  Human  Physiology. 
Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana. 
FctniK-11's         Natural        History         of 

Quadrupeds. 
Garratt's    Marvels    and    Mysteries    of 

Instinct, 

Goldsmith's  Animated  Nature. 
Gosse's  Life  in  its  Lower  Grades. 
Henfrcy's  Natural  History. 
Hoeven's  Handbook  of  Zoology. 
Hewitt's  Calender  of  the  Seasons. 
Jardine's  Naturalist's  Library. 
Jesse's  Gleanings  from  Natural  History. 
Karr's  Tour  round  my  Garden. 
Kidd's  Adaptation  of"  External  Nature. 
Kiike's  Handbook  of  Physiology. 
Kirby  and  Spence's  Entomology. 
Lie's  Elements  of  Natural  History. 
Lcwes's  Seaside  Studies. 
London's  Domestic  Cets. 
I  ardner's  Animal  Physiology. 
Latham's  Varieties  of  Man. 
Lord's  Popular  Physiology. 


Laurence's   Lectures   on    Comparative 
Anatomy. 

Magazine  of  Natural  History. 

Magendie's  Elementary  Compendium. 

Martin's  Birds  and  Domestic  Fowls. 

Maunder's  Treasury  of  Natural  History. 

Muiie's  Feathered  Tribes. 

Natural  History  for  Young  People. 

Nuttall's  Ornithology. 

Orr's  Circle  of  the  Sciences. 

Owen's  Basis  of  Natural  History. 

Paley's  Natural  Theology. 

Partington's  Cyclopaedia. 

Penny  Cyclopaedia. 

Philosophy  of  Common  Things. 

Physiology  of  Health. 

Pliny's  Natural  History. 

Pritchard's  Natural  History  of  Man. 

Rennie's  Bird  Miscellanies. 

Rennie's  Bird  Architecture. 

Smellie's      Philosophy       of       Natural 
History. 

Smith's  Natural  History  of  the  Human 
Species. 

Stanley's  Familiar  History  of  Birds. 

St.  Pierre's  Studies  of  Nature. 

Swainson's      Natural        History        of 
Quadrupeds. 

Swainson's  Natural  History  of  Birds. 

Swainson's    Habits    and    Instincts    of 

Animals. 

Swainson's  Natural  History  of  Fishes. 
Swainson's  Natural  History  of  Insects. 
Twining's  Short  Lectures. 
Universal  Powers  of  Nature. 
Ward's  Natural  History  of  Mankind. 
Waterton's  Essays  on  Natural  History. 
Waterton'a      Wanderings      in      South 

America. 
Wesley's     Compendium     of     Natural 

Philosophy. 

White's  History  of  Selborne. 
Wilson's  Diseases  of  the  Skin. 
Wilson's  Ornithology. 
Wonders  of  the  Human  Frame. 
Wonders  of  Organic  Life. 
Yarn-IPs  History  of  British  Birds. 
Yarrell's  History  of  British  Fishes. 
Youatt  on  the  Horse. 
Youatt  on  the  Sheep. 
Youatt  on  the  Dog. 


INDEX. 


The  numbers,  except  where  otherwise  indicated,  refer  to 
the  Questions.  A  key  to  the  pronunciation  of  sclent  i  fie  and 
uncommon  terms  is  supplied  by  the  Index, 


Acanthoptcra,  a-kan-thop'-ter-a, 
why  is  the  first  sub-order  of 
fishes  so  called  1102 

Accipetres,  ack-sip'-e-tfit-s,  why  the 
first  order  of  birds  so  called  ...  647 

Agama,  why  has  it  the  power  of 
inflating  its  body ..  1016 

Age,  why  is  the  human  body  hard 
and  angular  when  old  39 

A  i,  a'-i,  why  so  called        403 

Alligator,  why,  so  called 1012 

American,  why  the  race  so  called          5 

Amphibia       164 

Amphibia,  am-fib'-e-n,  why  is  the 
fourth  order  of  reptiles  so  called  1026 

Anacanthina,  an-a-kan-thy'-na, 
why  is  the  sub-order  of  fishes  so 
named  1088 

Anchovies,  what  are  they 1061 

Animal  bodies,  why  the  variation 
of  most  common  in  the  centre  16 

Animals,  why  classified  by  na 
turalists  161 

Animals,  why  do  some  undergo  a 
state  of  torpor  628 

Animals,  why  has  every  race  its 
appointed  enemies  ...  ...  1153 

Animal*,  table  of  their  fecundity...  1155 

Animals,  why  does  their  duration 
of  life  vary 11.56 

Animals,  table  of  their  life-periods  1157 

Ant-eater,  American,  why  such  a 
long  snout  and  protrusive  tongue  422 

Ant-eaters,  how  are  the  glands  of, 
furnished 423 

Ant-eaters,  why  of  great  import 
ance  in  nature  424 

Ant-hills,  description  of    425 

Apes,  how  are  they  distinguished 
from  jaboons  and  monkeys  ...  172 

Arm,  how  are  its  motions  per 
formed  63 

Armadillo,  nr-inar-dil'-lo,  why  is 
it  so  called 416 

Armadillo,  how  is  its  form  pecu 
liarly  adapted  to  its  mode  of  life  417 

Armadillo,  how  is  it  able  to  cap 
ture  ants,  although  it  is  unpro 
vided  with  an  extensile  tongue  418 


A'2 


Armadillos,  why  has  the  number 

of,  increased  in  the  colonies     ...    419 
Armadillos,  why  do  Indians  ascer 
tain    the    presence    of,    by   the 
movements  of  musquitoes        . . .    420 
Articulata,  ar-tc-ku-lay'-ta,  how 

cla-siiied     165 

Ass,  why  better  kept  on  commons 

than  in  pastures 501 

Ass,  why  is  the  milk  of,  best  for 

invalids       502 

Aves,  a'-vces 164 

Avocet,   a-ro'-set,   why  is  its  bill 
shaped  like  a  scoop         ...        ...     903 

Badgers,   why  erroneous   to  sup 
pose    that    they    burrow     into 
graves  and  devour  bodies         ...     239 
Badger,  why  is  the  female  more 
careful      than     the     male     in 

burrowing  ...         240 

Badgers,   narrative  of   two,   in  a 

state  of  confinement        241 

Badger-hunting,    why  an  amuse 
ment  of  former  times      242 

Badircr,  modes  adopted  of  taking       243 

Barbel,  why  so  called         1076 

Barbel,  why  is  the  first  ray  of  its 

dor  al  flu"  deeply  set  rated          ...  1077 
Barbel,  why  has  it  four  wattles  on 

its  lower  jaw         1078 

Barbel,  Avhy  do  small  fish  attend  it  1079 
Bats,  why  not  classed  with  birds        185 
Bats,  why  are  the  wings  of,  hooked     186 
Bats,  why  do  they  conceal  them 
selves  durinur  day  187 

Bats,  why  do  they  fly  by  night     ...     189 
Bats,  why  have  their  wings  nerves     188 

Bats,  use  of 190 

Bats,  why  do  they  hybernate       ...     191 
Bats  compared  with  moles  ...     194 

Beagles,    why    they    have    large 

heads  264 

Bears,  why  have  they  an  awkward 

gait 235 

Bears,  why  are  they  good  climbers     236 
Bears,  why  uninjured  in  exposed 

places          ..          ..     237 

Brars,    why  do  they  easily    stand 
upright        238 


INDEX. 


Boasts  ot  prey,  -why  do  they  roar 
before  the'y  spring  on  their 
victim  215 

Beavers,  why  have  they  remark 
ably  broad  and  thin  tails  ...  375 

Peavers,  why  are  their  tails  with 
out  fur  376 

Beavers,  why  are  their  incisor 
teeth  remarkably  developed  ...  377 

Beavers,  the  pcculiai  habits  of    ...    378 

Beavers,  why  are  the  hind  feet 
better  adapted  for  swimming 
than  the  front  379 

Beavers,  why  do  they  build  their 
dams  straight  and  oblique  ...  380 

Beaver-hats,  why  called  "  castors  "    381 

Bee-eaters,  why  so  called 793 

Behemoth,  bi'-hS-mafh,  of  scrip 
ture,  identity  with  the  hippo 
potamus  454 

Beli.U'iis,  he-li/'-dcns,  why  does  the 
long  tailed,  seldom  descend  to 
the  ground 346 

Bima  >a,  bi-n  a'-na 167 

Binuuia.  >hy  man  only  included  in 
the  order  168 

Birds,  insectivorous,  uses  of        ...     220 

Birds,  why  is  the  second  order 
called  incessores  684 

Birds,  why  is  the  third  order  called 
scansores 694 

Birds,  why  is  the  fifth  order  called 
gyratores  833 

Birds,  why  is  the  fifth  order  called 
rasores  ...  ...  ...  ...  854 

Birds,  why  is  the  sixth  order  called 
cursores  874 

Birds,  why  is  the  seventh  order 
called  grallatores 888 

Birds,  why  is  the  eighth  order 
called  natatores  918 

Birds,  why  the  first  order  called 
accipetre's 647 

Birds  of  prey,  why  they  build  their 
nests  upon  rocks 648 

Birds  of  prey,  why  the  legs  and 
thighs  of,  are  shorter  than  those 
of  others  649 

Birds  of  prey,  why  destitute  of 
song 651 

Birds  of  prey,  why  some  destined 
to  eat  carrion  ...  ...  ...  653 

Birds  of  prey,  instance  of  their 
voracity  654 

Birds,  why  the  eyes  of  those 
which  prey  by  night  are  larger 
than  those  of  others  672 

Birds  of  paradise,  why  so  called  . .      765 

Birds  of  paradise,  why  supposed  to 
bs suspended  in  air  766 

Birds  of  paradise,  plumage  of     ...     767 

Birds  of  paradise,  how  is  the  pro 
fuse  plumage  of,  useful  ...  ...  768 

Birds,  why  do  they  swallow  stones, 
shells,  gravel,  &c.  855 

Birds,  action  of  their  digestive 
organs  856 

Birds,  how  do  gallinaceous,  re- 
6ciubl(-  ruminating  animals  ...  857 


Birds,  why  do  gallinaceous,  lay 
ard  hatch  upon  the  ground  ...  859 

Birds,  why  are  the  legs  of  gallina-    , 
ceous,  soon  developed     ...         ...     860 

Birds,  why  do  short-tailed  throw 
their  legs  behind  when  flying  ...  892 

Birds,  why  have  fish-eaters  no  crop    893 

Birds,  why  are  their  necks  long 
and  movcable  994 

Birds,  peculiarities  in  the  bills  of    906 

Birds,  why  are  aquatic,  able  to 
emerge  from  water  perfectly  dry  923 

Birds,  why  do  the  old  ones  precede 
the  young  ones  in  migration  ...  943 

Birds,  by  what  circumstance  is 
their  migration  governed  ...  944 

Birds,  why,  when  flying  in  flocks, 
do  they  arrange  themselves  into 
a  tri angular  body 946 

Birds,  why  do  those,  which  take 
long  flights,  fly  high  947 

Birds,  why  have  those,  which 
winter  out  of  England,  black 
down  under  their  feathers  ...  949 

Birds,  why  are  those,  brought  to 
England  from  distant  regions 
hard-billed 951 

Birds,  why  have  some,  extremely 
hard  bills 952 

Birds,  why  do  they  lay  eggs        ...    953 

Birns'-eggs,  why  do  they  contain 
white  and  yolk 954 

Birds'-eggs,  incubation  of,  de 
scribed  955 

Birds,  why  have  young  ones  a  hard 
scaly  substance  on  their  beaks...  956 

Birds'  egg,  description  of  the  shell    957 

Birds,  why  can  recently  hatched 
chicks  exist  without  food  ...  958 

Birds'  eggs,  why  does  the  number 
vary 960 

Birds,  why  do  they  select  silk, 
cotton,  wool,  fur,  &c.,  for  nests  961 

Bird's  nests,  how  built  and  pre 
pared  962 

Birds'  nests,  why  are  their  ma 
terials  varied  964 

Birds'  nest-;,  why  are  some  warmer 
than  others  965 

Birds,  why  will  they  hesitate  if 
observed  while  building  nests  ...  967 

Birds,  why  do  some,  require  the 
parents'  care  longer  than  others  969 

Birds,  why  do  the  male  parents 
evince  an  exceptional  fondness 
for  their  offspring  970 

Birds,  structure  of  their  heads  and 
necks  995 

Birds,  why  does  the  breast-bone 
form  an  important  part  of  their 
organization  996 

Birds,  why  is  the  gi/.zard  an  im 
portant  organ  998 

Birds,  why  do  they  moult  ...  1000 

Birds,  why  are  the  smaller  species 
numerous  and  widely  diffused...  972 

Birds,  why  have  they  distinct 
voices  ...  ...  ...  ...  974 

Buds,    why    is    the    j-lumugs    of 


INDEX. 


Xl 


females  more  sombre  than  of 
males  ...  ...  ...  ...  976 

Birds,  why  is  their  plumage  som 
bre  when  young 977 

Birds,  what  provision  is  illustrated 
in  the  disposition  of  their 
feathers  97!) 

Birds,  how  is  their  varied  plumage 
accounted  for  980 

Birds,  how  do  they  maintain  a 
standing  position 982 

Birds,  why  do  many  roost  upon 
one  leg ...  984 

Birds,  why  do  their  beaks  indicate 
their  peculiar  food  985 

Birds,  why  are  their  eyes 
adapted  to  any  range  of  sight  ...  987 

Bird.-,  why  does  their  hearing 
mainly  depend  upon  the  internal 
structure  of  the  organ  989 

Birds,  why  do  they  perch  with 
their  faces  to  the  wind 990 

Birds,  how  arc  they  able  to  sleep 
securely  when  perched  on  the 
branches  of  trees 992 

Bison,  why  able  to  use  its  horns 
with  more  effect  than  the  ox...  530 

Bittern,  whv  are  its  habits  little 
known  " 914 

Bittern,  mode  of  squatting  de 
scribed  915 

Bleak,  why  called  the  water- 
swallow  VMl 

Bleeding,  why  when  the  operation 
is  performed,  are  the  veins 
bound  77 

Blindness,  a  person  cured  of        ...     118 

Blindness,  sensibility  of  touch  in 
cases 157 

Blood,  how  formed GO 

Blood,  the  composition  of 70 

Blood,  how  circulated  and  puri 
fied  71 

Blood,  illustration  of  the  heart's 
action  72 

Blood,  why  so  important  an  agent 
in  animal  economy  73 

Blood,  the  circulation  of 74 

Bloodshot,  why  does  the  eye 
become  128 

Bloodhounds,  why  efficacious  in 
the  pursuit  of  fugitives 2G6 

Bodies,  animal,  why  they  vary 
most  in  the  centra  16 

Bones,  why  covered  with  perios 
teum...  ...  .  ...  ...  43 

Bones,  the  distinct  and  mutual 
uses  of  45 

Bones,  softness  of,  in  infancy      ...      4G 

Bones,  cylindrical 47 

Bones,  why  do  they  not  touch...       57 

Bones,  why  covered  with  cartilage       (>7 

Bower-bird,  why  so  called  ...     C92 

Bower-bird,  habits  of         693 

Bruin,    the   composition  of          ...       89 

Brain,  functions  of  the  gieat  and 
•mill  90 

B  i'  >  win  not  injured  b"  th» 
movement  (>f  the  spine  ..  ...  91 


Breathing,  why  it  causes  the  chest 
to  heave  86 

Breathing,  offices  of  the  ribs  and 
diaphragm 87 

Bnffiiloes,  whv  the  horns  of,  are 
useful  to  the  animal  523 

Bull-frog,  how  does  it  produce  a 
noise 1030 

Butcher-bird,  why  so  called         ...     689 

Camel,  difference  between  it  and 
the  dromedary  513 

Camel,  why  so  called        5:4 

Camel,  why  is  its  neck  long  and 
flexible  516 

Camel,  why  is  the  formation  of 
the  stomach  of,  adapted  for 
long  journeys  over  deserts  ...  519 

Camel,  why  have  its  feet  large 
cushions  521 

Camel,   how  are  its  eyes  protected    522 

Camel,  adaptation  of  its  teeth  for 
food  522 

Canary,  the  plumage  of     763 

Canine  teeth,  why  are  carnivorous 
animals  provided  with  ...  ...  206 

Carnaria,  kar-nar'-i-a,  why  is  the 
third  division  of  the  Mammalia 
so  called  183 

Carnaria,  why  is  the  first  sub 
order  called  cheiroptera 184 

Carnaria,  why  is  the  second  sub 
order  called  insectivora 192 

Carnaria,  why  is  the  third  sub 
order  called  carnivora  205 

Carnivora,  kar-niv'-o-ra,  why  is 
the  third  sub-order  of  carnaria 
so  called  2^5 

Carnivorous  animals,  why  have 
they  canine  teeth 20fc 

Carnivorous  animals,  why  are 
their  molar  teeth  fitted  into 
each  other 207 

Carnivora,  how  does  their  anatomy 
adapt  itself  to  their  modes  of 
life 208 

Carnivorous  animals,  why  are 
the  pupils  of  their  e^es  vari 
ously  shaped  216 

Carnivorous  animals,  why  in 
cluded  in  all  the  natural  classes  219 

Cartilage         66 

Catalepsy        107 

Cat-bird,  why  so  named    694 

Cats,  why  when  playing  do  they 
turn  on  their  backs  and  seize 
with  their  claws  ...  ...  22C 

Cats,  why  does  cropping  their  ears 
prevent  their  climbing  trees  ...  224 

Cats,    why    does    their    fur    emit 
electrical  sparks    ...        ...        ...     227 

Cats,    purpose    served     by     their 

electricity 227 

Cats,   why   are  they  uneasy  pre 
vious  to  a  storm  ...        ...        ...     228 

Cats,  by  what  means  are  they 
enabled  to  extend  or  withdraw 

their  talons 229 

Cats,  why  do  they  refuse  vege 
table  food 231 


Xll 


INDEX. 


Cats,  why  do  they  lap  fluids 
slowly  232 

Cats,  why  said  to  have  "nine 
lives"  233 

Cats,  why  have  they  great  diffi 
culty  in  masticating  vegetables  302 

Cattle,  why  is  it  customary  in 
Switzerland  to  bell  their  necks  543 

Cattle,  why  when  flying  from  the 
hunter  do  they  keep  to  the  sides 
of  copses  549 

Cattle,  why,  when  wild  meditate 
an  attack  do  they  approach  in 
circles  550 

Cattle,  why  is  the  hair  of  tame, 
softer  and  smoother  than  that 
of  wild  552 

Cattle,  why  are  the  horns  of  tame, 
generally  shorter  than  those  of 
wild 554 

Cattle,  why  do  wild,  feed  in  herds    556 

Cattle,  why  when  feeding  do  they 
scatter,  and  graze  separately  ...  556 

Caucasian,  kau-kas'-si-un,  why  is 
the  race  so  called 2 

Cetacea,  se-ta'-ce-a  ...         ...         ...     577 

Cotacea,  habits  and  structure  of  ...     578 

Cetacea,  why  separated  from  fishes    579 

C}\xtoi\ons,'chet'-r)-(lo>is,  why  are 
they  so  brilliantly  coloured  ...  1106 

Chameleon,  why  has  it  the  power 
of  changing  its  colour  1014 

Cheeks,  why  do  they  turn  pale  or 
red  through  fear  or  rage  ...  79 

Cheek,  why  is  a  pale  one  an  indica 
tion  of  disease  80 

Chest,  why  does  it  heave  when  we 
breathe  86 

Cheirop'era,  ky-rop'-ter-a,         ...      184 

Chelonia,  ke!-lo'-ne-a,  why  is  the 
first  order  of  reptiles  so  called...  1002 

Chinche,  kin'-tche,  animals  with 
an  offensive  smell...  ...  ...  248 

Chomlrostea,  km-drost '-e-a,  why 
is  the  second  sub-order  of 
ganoidca  so  called  1123 

Civet,  why  called  the  civet  cat     ...     319 

Civet  perfume,  how  is  it  produced    320 

Classification  of  animals,  why 
adopted  .'.  161 

Classification  of  animals,  significa 
tion  of  terms  in  162 

Classification  of  animals,  principles 
of  325 

Climbing  animals,  how  is  ihe 
supply  of  blood  in  the  legs  of, 
regulated 412 

Coati,  ko'-a-te,  why  does  it  burrow 
beneath  trees  234 

Cockatoos,  why  so  called 815 

Cod,  why  does  it  abound  on  tie 
Newfoundland  coast  ...  ...  1091 

Cold,  why  does  it  purple  the  skin        35 

Cold,  why  does  moderate,  stimulate 
the  system 78 

Conirostres,  con-c-rtts' -trees,  why 
is  the  sub-order  so  named  ...  726 

Conirostre*,  why  are  *he  heads  of, 
disproportionately  hirjjp  ...  728 


Cormorant  peculiarity  in  the  struc 
ture  of  its  foot  . .".  936 

Coughing,  why  does  it  increase 
headache 81 

Coursing,  why  are  two  dogs  em 
ployed  '.  ..263 

Cow,  anecdote  of  a  544 

Cow,  why  has  it  four  or  more  teats    547 

Cows,  management  of  the  teats  of 
when  sucking  548 

Coypou,  koy-poo,  why,  though 
identical  with  the  'beaver  in 
habits,  has  it  a  dissimilar  tail  ...  382 

Creeper,  why  are  its  feet  long  and 
powerful  780 

Crocodile,  why  does  it  allow  the 
zic-zac  to  be  familiar  with  it  ...  1009 

Crocodile,  why  do  both  of  its  jaws 
move  1011 

Crows,  why  erroneous  to  suppose 
that  they  destroy  grass 763 

Crossbill,  why  is'  the  beak  of, 
peculiarly  constructed  749 

Crows,  why  said  that  they  can 
smell  gunpowder 741 

Crows,  why  wrong  to  destroy  them    744 

Cuckoo,  why  does  it  deposit  eggs 
in  nests  of  other  birds  821 

Cuckoo,  why  does  it  drop  its  eggs 
in  the  nests  of  smaller  birds  ...  822 

Cuckoo,  why  does  it  deposit  its 
eggs  in  the  nests  of  sparrows, 
wagtails,  &c 823 

Cuckoo,  why  does  it  deposit  its 
eggs  with  its  foot 825 

Cuckoo,  why  does  it  cause  injury 
to  the  eggs  of  other  birds  ...  826 

Cuckoos,  why  do  they  perch  on 
the  backs  of  oxen  while  grazing  827 

Cursores,  kur-so'-rees,  why  is  the 
order  so  named* 873 

Cuticle,  why  is  it  slightly  rough  ...      33 

Cuticle,  spe'cial  provisions  for,  in 
various  parts  of  the  body  ...  34 

Cuvier,  anecdote  of 646 

Cyclostomata,  sy-klos-tom'-a-ta, 
why  is  the  second  sub-order  of 
fishes  so  called  1039 

Deaf  persons,  why  do  they  place  a 
hand  behind  their  ears  ...  ...  148 

Deaf  persons,  why  do  they  hear 
more  readily  if  addressed  in  a 
moderate  tone  149 

Deer,  why  furnished  with  supple 
mentary  breathing  organs  ...  536 

Dentirosties,  dtn-te-ros' -trees,  why 
is  the  sub-order  so  called  ...  686 

Diaphragm,  di'-n-fram      87 

Dog  and  wolf,  points  of  similarity 
between  ...  ...  ...  ...  263 

Dog  and  wolf,  why  a  difference  in 
the  pupils  of  their  eyes 225 

Dogs,  why  may  it  be  supposed 
that  all  the  varities  of,  spring 
from  a  common  origin  ...  ...  258 

Dou-s,  influence  of  climate  upon  ...     257 

Dogs.  Isle  of,  why  so  called         ...     258 

Dc,?s,  why  are  two  employed  in 
coursing  ...  ...  ...  ...  23? 


INDEX. 


XLU 


Dogs,  why  should  those  used  for 
sport  be  kept  to  their  own  game  265 

Dogs,  why  is  their  sense  of  sinell 
acute  268 

Dogs,  why  do  they  lose  their  scent 
of  game-birds  during  incubation  2G9 

Dogs,  why  do  those  used  for  sport 
make  "  a  point " 270 

Dogs,   what  is  the  scent  of       ...    272 

Dogs,  why  is  a  moist  atmosphere 
best  for  scent  274 

Dogs,  why  is  a  wet  day  unfavour 
able  for  scent  276 

Dogs,  why  is  there  little  scent 
when  the  ground  is  hard  and 
dry 277 

Dogs,  why  does  scent  sometimes 
lie  breast  high  278 

Dogs,  why  does  scent  rarely  lie 
with  a  north  or  east  wind  ...  279 

Dogs,  why  is  scent  generally  good 
when  the  wind  is  southerly,  of 
dogs 281 

Dcgs,  why  does  humidity  favour 
soent 282 

Dogs,  why  is  scent  seldom  good 
when  cobwebs  hang  on  bushes...  283 

Dogs,  why  will  scent  sometimes  be 
good  in  a  hard  rain  and  mild  air  284 

Dogs,  why  is  scent  destroyed  by 
sudden  storms  285 

Dogs,  why  is  scent  not  good  on 
sunshiny  days  862 

Dogs,  why  is  scent  good  on  a  warm 
day  without  sunshine  287 

Dogs,  why  does  scent  lie  badly 
upon  fallows  and  beaten  roads...  288 

Dogs,  why  is  scent  good  by  hedge 
rows 289 

Dogs,  why  does  scent  differ  in 
various  u  reeds  290 

Dog,  why  is  the  Newfoundland, 
of  greatest  service  to  man  . . .  293 

Dog,  anecdote  of  a  Newfoundland     294 

Dogs,  why  do  they  toss  their  heads 
when  masticating  a  tough  sub 
stance  295 

Dogs,  why  are  the  habits  of  the 
shepherd's,  the  result  of  educa 
tion  rather  than  instinct. ..  ...  296 

Dogs,  how  may  they  be  taught  to 
perform  tricks  with  cards  ...  298 

Dogs,  why  frightened  at  lame  and 
stooping  persons 299 

Dogs,  why  do  they  turn  round 
several  times  before  lying  down  300 

Dogs,  why  should  their  treatment 
be  regulated  by  moral  influence  30] 

Dogs,  why  have  they  difficulty  in 
masticating  vegetable  substances  302 

Dog,  Tyke  the  fire-dog       304 

Dog,  restoring  a  piece  of  hidden 
money  to  his  master  305 

Dog,  memory  and  gratitude  of  a...     306 

Dog  acting  as  constable     ...        ...    307 

Dog's  revenge  ...     308 

Dog,  clemency  of  a  Newfoundland    309 

Dog,  Highland  cur  performing  the 
part  of  a  detective  310 


Dog  philanthropists...          .       ..    311 

Dogs,  influence  of  domestication 

upon  ...............    601 

Dog.  a  stratagem  to  obtain  food  ...  624 
Dolphin,  why  has  its  shape  been 

misrepre  eh  ted      .........     589 

Dolphin,  why  does  it  utter  a  sound 

resembling  the  human  voice  ...  591 
Dolphins,  why  have  they  the  flat 

surface  of  their  tails  placed  hori 

zontally       ............    597 

Dormouse,  why  does  it  become 

fat  during  the  period  of  hyber- 

nation          ............    360 

Doves,  why  do  they  prefer  artifi 

cial  pigeon  houses...        ...        ...    844 

Dromedary,  the  difference  between 

it  and  the  camel    .........     533 

Dromedary,  why  so  called  ......     5i4 

DromedarVi  why  has  it  a  hump  on 

its  back        ............    517 

Dromedary,  why  is  stomach  of, 

adapted  for  the  journeys  over 

deserts         ............     519 

Ducks,  why  are  they  assiduous  in 

trimming  their  feathers  ......     924 

Ducks,  why  do  they  appear  pleased 

at  the  approach  of  rain  ......     926 

Duck,  why  is  its  bill  peculiarly 

sensitive       ............     927 

Eagle,  why  a  courageous  bird  ...  655 
Eagle,  why  is  it  called  the  king  of 

birds  ...............     662 

Eagles,  why  cannot  they  attack 

prey  directly  under  them          ...     663 
Eagle,  the  white-headed    ......     664 

Eagles,  why  are  they  sometimes 

found  dead,  and  fastened  to  fish  665 
Eagles,  why  are  the  eyes  of,  fur 

nished  with  nictating  membranes  666 
Eagles,  why  do  they  drive  away 

their  young  .........     668 

Eagles,  why  are  the  wings  of 

broad  and  concave  ......     669 

Eagles,  why  are  the  wings  of 

shorter  than  those  of  the  falcon  670 
Ears,  why  are  both  used  to  deter 

mine  the  direction  of  sound  ...  146 
Ears,  why  sometimes  both,  and  at 

other  times  only  one,   used   to 

distinguish  sounds  ...         ...     147 

Ear,  how  does  a  hand  placed 

behind  it  operate  .........     148 

Edentata,  e-dent-a'-ta,  why  is  the 

sixth  order  of  animals  so  named 


402 
432 


Elephant,  why   furnished  with  a 

proboscis     ............ 

Elephant,  why  is    the    trunk    of, 

capable    of  "  a  great  variety  of 

motions       ............    434 

Elephants,  various   functions    the 

trunk  is  able  to  perform        ...    435 
Elephant,     why     provided     with 

tusks  ...............     43>i 

Elephant,  why  are   the   eyes    of, 

small  ...............     438 

Elephant,  why  are  the  ears  of,  large    439 
Lleylumt,      peculiar      anatomical 

structure  of  the  ear  ...    440 


xiv 


INDEX. 


Elephant,    why    does    it    use    its 
trunk   to   seize   a  man  and  not 

to  attack  a  tiger 441 

Elephant,  why  has  it  the  power  of 

bending  the  hind  leg:  forward  •••    443 
Elephant,  docility  and  intelligence 

of       444 

Elephant,  protecting  the  sick  and 

dying-  ...       " 445 

Elephant,  going  to  a  hospital   to 

have  Its  wounds  dressed 446 

Elephant,    affection     of,     for     its 

species         447 

Elephant,  revenue  of         448 

Elephant,  sagacity  of          ...         ...     449 

Elk,  why  is  its  neck  so  short  ...  534 
Ethiopian,  why  is  the  race  so 

called  ...         4 

Eye,  why  do  the  powers  of  vision 
greatly    depend  on   mechanical 

exercise       113 

Eye,  the  operation  of  in  viewing 
objects         ...         ...         ...         ...     115 

Eye,  why  is  the  motion  of,  essen 
tial  to  vision          ...        ...        ...     116 

Eye,  why  do  the  powers  of,  depend 

on  development 117 

Eye,  why  does  the  pupil  of,  con- 

'tract  and  dilate     121 

Eye,  chamber  of       122 

Eye,  why  unable  to  discern  objects 
"when  passing  from  strong  light 

into  darkness        123 

Eye,    why    inconvenienced    when 
emerging    from    darkness    into 

light 124 

Eye,  why  is  the  pupil  of,  so  called  125 
Eye,  why  is  it  sometimes  biood- 

"shot 128 

Eye,  why  does  it  lose  its  lustre  in 

'old  age  and  sickness        131 

Eye,  what  occasions  squinting  ...  132 
Eye,  why  does  it  perceive  colours  134 
Eve,  why  does  a  blow  produce  a 

flash  of  light         136 

Eyeball,  sensitiveness  of,  how  ac 
counted  for  137 

Eye,   why    cannot    it  distinguish 
minute  objects  when  immersed 

in  water       138 

Eyes,  why  furnished  with  lashes        139 
Eyes,  why  protected  by  eyebrows       141 
Eyes,  furnished  with  eyelids        ...     142 
Eyelid,   why  the  motions  of,   in 
voluntary    ...         ...         ...         ...     141? 

Eyes  of  carnivorous  animals,  why 

are  the  pupils  variously  shaped  2^6 
Eyes  of  animals,  why  do  they 

glare  in  darkness 221 

Eyes  of  animals,  why  do  they  not 

glisten  in  the  daylight 222 

Fairy-rings,  why  supposed  to  be 

caused  by  moles 199 

Falcon,  why  are  its  wings  larger 

than  those  of  the  eagle 670 

Falcon,  why  is  the  optic  nerve  in 

its  eye  folded  into  plaits  ...  671 
Fat,  why  necessary  to  the  system  3S 
Fat,  economy  of  37 


Fear,  why  does  it  cause  pale  cheeks  79 
Feet,  how  are  the  nails  formed  ...  2!? 
Ferrets,  why  dangerous  to  keep  ...  250 
Feline  animals,  why  when  a  per 

son  ie  struck  by,  should  he  not 

move  ............     211 

Ferret,  why  has  the  Nubian,  valves 

to  its  ears    ............     311 

Fingei's,  peculiar  functions  of  ...  22 
Fingers,  why  are  their  extremities 

soft  and  round       .........       24 

Fingers,  why  are  thcv  of  unequal 

length          .....  '.         ......       25 

Fingers,    why    are    the    tops    of, 

guarded  by  cushions        ......       26 

Fingers,  why  furnished  with  nails  27 
Fishes,  why  is  the  first  order  of, 

called  leptocardia  .........  1038 

Fishes,  why  is  the  second  order  of, 

called  clyclostomata        ......  1039 

Fishes,  why  is  the  third  older  of, 

called  teleostia      .........  1044 

Fishes,  why   do  their  spinous  de 

fensive  weapons  turn  backwards  1104 
Fishes,  why  are    some  furnished 

with  a  sucker        .........  1111 

Fishes,   why    is  the  fourth  order 

named  ganoidea    .........  1121 

Fishes,    why    is    the    fifth    order 

called  selachia      .........  1124 

Fishes,    how    is   their     breathing 

conducted  ............  1131 

Fishes,  why  is  their  flesh  white  ...  1132 
Fishes,  why  do  they  not  masticate 

their  food    ............  1133 

Fishes,  why  are  their  teeth  curved 

inwards       ............  1131 

Fishes,  why   do  they  gasp  when 

out  of  water         .........  1135 

Fishes,  why    can  some  live  long 

out  of  water          .........  1136 

Fishes,    why    are   the   crystalline 

lenses  of  their  eyes  round        ...  1137 
Fishes,  why  do  they  lie  with  their 

heads  against  the  stream          ...  1139 
Fishes,  why  do  some  swim  at  the 

surface,    and    others    near    the 

bottom        ............  1143 

Fishes,     why    when     they    have 

broken   away  with   a  hook  will 

they  take  another  immediately...  1144 
Fishes,    why     do     their    wounds 

rapidly  heal  .........  1146 

Fishes,  why  are  they  exempt  from 

disease    "    ............  1146 

Fishes,  why  the  sub-order  of  ana- 
canthina  so  called  ......  1088 

Fishes,   why   do  they  float   when 

dead  .......  ."  .......  1094 

Fishes,   why  is  the  sub-order  of 

physomata  so  named       ......  104£ 

Fishes,  why  may  they  be  drowned 

while  being  caught 


Fishes,  why  are  the  migrations  of, 
beneficial 


1147 
1149 


ishes, 
shallow  waters      .........  1150 

Fissirostres,    fia-sc-ros'  -trees,  why 
so  designated  ......  ..'.     711 


INDEX. 


Flamingo,  why  when  feeding  does 
it  hold  its  head  and  beak  upside 
down  in  the  water  ...  ...  899 

Flamingo,  why  does  it  make  its 
nest  on  mound-like  elevations  ...  901 

Flat-fish,  why  do  they  float  more 
than  others 1095 

Fluids,  their  effect  upon  the  body        40 

Flying  squirrels,  why  so  called    ...     358 

Flying-fishes,  why  are  they  so 
called  1105 

Foot,  why  is  the  sole  arched        ...       19 

Fowls,  why  has  the  cock  a  stream 
ing  tail  862 

Fowls,  why  have  they  become  do 
mesticated  863 

Fowls,  why  have  they  limited 
powers  of  flight  864 

f  >wls,  structure  of  their  wings  and 
feet 865 

/"owls,  why  do  they  roost  in  ele 
vated  places  866 

fowls,  why  do  they  hustle  them 
selves  in  dust  ...  ...  ...  871 

Foxes,  why  are  those  found  early 
in  the  day  easily  caught  ..".  292 

Foxes,  why  are  they  less  easily 
caught  than  hares  388 

Frog,  why  does  it  keep  its  mouth 
shut  when  breathing  1027 

Frogs,  how  are  the  reported 
showers  of,  accounted  for  ...  1029 

Fro!?s,  how  is  their  croaking  pro 
duced  1031 

Frogs,  why  are  they  frequently 
found  dead  in  dusty  roads  ...  1032 

Game-birds,  why  do  dogs  lose 
their  scent  of  them  during  the 
incubation 269 

Ganoidea,  gan-oyd'-e-a,  why  is  the 
fourth  order  of  fishes  so  named  1121 

Gar- fish,  why  called  the  mackerel 
guide  1099 

Geese,  why  do  they  "  waddle  "  in 
their  walk  ...  ' 925 

Geese,  why  do,  seemed  pleased  at 
the  approach  of  rain  926 

Genus,  what  is  the  meaning  of    ...     163 

Giraffe,  why  does  the  lion  wait  for, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  water  218 

Giraff  •  and  kanguroo,  locomotion 
contrasted 342 

Giraffe,  why  has  it  a  small  head  ...    433 

Giraffe,  why  has  it  a  long  tongue      559 

Giraffe,  enormous  appetite  of      ...     560 

Giraffe,  why  is  the  head  sur 
mounted  by  short  horns  ...  561 

Giraffe,  why  are  the  nostrils 
thickly  intersected  with  hairs  ...  563 

Giraffe,  "why  are  the  eyes  set  prom 
inently  near  the  back  of  th_'  head  564 

Giraffe,  'why  attacked  by  the  lion 
when  in  the  act  of  drinking  ...  565 

Giraffe,  why  has  it  a  long  slender 
neck. 557 

Globe-fish,  what  are  its  peculiari 
ties  of  structure  and  habit  ...  1107 

Goats,  why  suppose. I  that  they 
improve  the  health  of  horses  ...  567 


Goats,    why  can  they   subsist   on 

vegetables  which  are  poisonous  568 
Goat-sucker,  why  has  the  mouth 

of,  long  bristly  hairs        ......     725 

Goldfinches,  why  do  they  bu'ld  on 

flexible  branches  ........     761 

Gold-fish,  how  do  they  subsist 

apparently  on  water  only  ...  1085 
Gold-fish,  why  do  they  so  fre- 

quentlv  come  to  the  surface  ...  1087 
Goose,  why  is  it  considered  a  stupid 

bird  ...............    919 

Goose,  why  was  it  esteemed  by  the 

Komana       ............    921 

Grallatores,  gral-fn-to'-rees,  why 

is  the  order  so  named     ...        ...    887 

Greyhound,  why  does  it  hunt  by 

sight  alorip  ...        ..'  .......    259 

Greyhounds,  -why  less  attached  to 

their  masters  than  other  dogs  ...  202 
Greyhound,  why  should  the  neck 

of,  belong  ............     261 

Guinea-fowls,  why  have  their  eggs 

hard  shells  ............    870 

Hums,  why  well  fitted  to  receive 

teeth       "     ............      94 

Gurnards,  why  are  the  Indian, 

called  flyi!i--fir-hed  ...         ...  1105 

Gymnotus,  yitn-no'-lns,  why  has  it 

"the    power    of    giving    electric 

shocks         ...        ...     '  ...        ...  1048 

Gyratores,  jy-ra-to'-rees,  why  is 

the  order  so  called  ...  "...  832 
Hair,  why  an  appropriate  covering 

for  the  head  .........      38 

Hamster,  why  has  it  enormous 

cheek  pouches       .........     371 

Hamster,  peculiar  habits  of  ...  372 
Hand,  why  the  most  important 

member       ............      20 

Hand,  why  divided  into  several 

parts  ............      21 

Hands,  why  do  they  incline  to 

wards  each  other  ...        ...        ...      23 

Hands,  why  are  the  palms  guarded 

by  cushions  ...        ...        ...       26 

Hare-lip,  why,  when  divided,  is 

the  lip  so  called    .........     396 

Hares,  why,  when  pursued,  do 

they  make  for  rising  ground  ...  384 
Hares,  why  do  they  run  down  hill 

zisr-zag 


Hares,  why  are  the  hind  legs  of, 
long  and  powerful  ...... 

Hares,  why  unable  to  run  on 
fallows  and  wet  soils  ...... 

Hares,  why,  though  fleeter  than 
foxes,  are  they  sooner  caught  ... 

Hares,  whv  lean,  while  rabbits  are 
fat  ...  *  ............ 

Hares,  great  speed  of        ...        ... 

Hares,  why,  in  the  young  ones,  is 
the  cavity  of  the  chest  larger 
than  the  lungs  ......... 

Hares,  why  are  the  ears  of,  so 
long  and  capable  of  varied 
motion  .........  ... 

Hares,  what  are  habits  and  in 
stincts  of  .  ...... 


385 
386 


387 
383 


389 
390 


391 


392 
393 


XVI 


INDEX. 


Ha:  es,  why  do  they  make  forms, 
while  rabbits  burrow  391 

Hares,  why  are  persons  said  to  be 
as  mad  "as  March  hares  when 
they  are  flighty  397 

Hare,  why  so  culled          398 

Hares,  why  do  they  leap  <o  and 
fro  before  they  jump  upon  their 
forms  399 

Hares,  stratagem;  adopted  by, 
to  escape  400 

Hares,  why  are  the  eyes  of>  never 
closed  401 

Head,  why  covered  with  hair      ...      38 

Head,  formation  of,  in  idocy    ...      55 

Head,  why  are  the  senses 
placed  in  112 

Headache,  why  increased  by 
coughing  81 

Hearing-,   the  process  of 144 

Heaii.ig,  why  is  that  of  infants 
iiurutinct 145 

Hearing,  why  both  ears  are  used 
to  determine  the  direction  of 
sound  146 

Hearing,  why  sometimes  one  ear 
and  otherwise  both  called  into 
action  ...  ...  ...  ...  147 

Hearing,  why  made  easier  to  deaf 
persons  by  a  moderate  tone  of 
voice  149 

Hearing,  how  facilitated  by  placing 
a  ticking  watch  upon  the  teeth  150 

Hi-art,  its  action       72 

Heart,  insensibility  of        109 

Heart,  how  is  its  position  undis 
turbed  Ill 

Hedgehog,  why  covered  with 
spines  203 

Hedgehog,  what  it  chiefly  preys 
upon  204 

Heel,  why  projecting         56 

Herbivorous,  her-be'-co-rtts,  ani 
mals,  why  do  they  chew  the  cud  508 

Herons,  why  have  they  cumbrous 
wings  913 

Herring,  why  so  called       1050 

Herrings,  why  do  they  migrate  ...  1051 

Herrings,  why  do  they  swim  in 
shoab  ...  * 1053 

Herrings,  why  are  few  eavight  in 
the  cold  mouths 1052 

Herring,  in  what  does  it  differ 
from  the  pilchard... 1056 

Hcrvio  Nano,  exploits  of,  de 
scribed  650 

Hip-joint,  mechanism  of 51 

Hippopotamus,  hip-po-pot'-a- 
mits,  why  so  called  450 

Hippopotamus,  why  do  the  waters 
bubble  when  it  dives  451 

Hippopotamus,  why  has  it  large 
teeth 452 

Hippopotamus,  what  are  its  offices 
in  rivers  ...  ...  ...  ...  453 

Hippopotamus,  identity  with  the 
behemoth 451 

Hippopotamus,  why  does  it  walk 
awkwardly 455 


Hippopotamus,  why  called  the 
"  river-horse "  456 

Hippopotamus,  hovr  are  the  eyes 
and  nostrils  adapted  to  its 
habits  457 

Hippopotamus,  faculty  of  living 
under  water  453 

Hogs,  why  have  they  thick  necks    4ti7 

Hog,  Indian,  why  furnished  \\ith 
crooked  tusks  403 

Hogs,  functions  of  the  tusks         . . .     469 

Hogs,  why  when  two  are  feeding 
will  one  of  them  have  his  foot 
in  the  trough  471 

Holocephala,  hol-o-seph'-e-Ia,  why 
is  the  first  sub-order  of  selachia 
so  called  1125 

Holostea,  hol-ost'-e-a,  why  is  the 
first  sub-order  of  gano'idea  so 
called  1122 

Hoopoe,  hoop'-o,  why  so  named  ...     787 

Horns  of  animals,  growth,  struc 
ture,  and  uses  526 

Horses,  wild,  why  they  congre 
gate  in  flocks  477 

Horses,  why  are  the  colours  and 
marks  of,  varied 478 

Horses,  "why  when  two  are  in  a 
pasture  does  one  nibble  the 
shoulder  of  the  other  480 

Horses,  why  furnished  with  strong 
hairs  on  the  lips 482 

Horses,  why  does  a  prevalence  of 
"white"  in  the  eye  indicate  a 
vicious  temper  483 

Horses,  why  without  eyebrows  ...    484 

Hurses,  how  are  the  eyes  pro 
tected  485 

Horses,  why  is  the  form  of  the 
racer  fitted  for  running  ...  486 

Horses,  varied  forms  arid  points  of    487 

Horses,  why  have  they  large 
square  jaws  488 

Horses,  why  does  a  heavy  shoulder 
indicate  slowness  and  stumbling  489 

Horses,  why  are  those  with  deep 
bellies  best  for  labour  ...  ...  490 

Horses,  capabilities  of  the  Suffolic 
punch  491 

Horses,  why  without  gall-bladders    492 

Horses,  why  havr  aged  ones 
cavities  above  their  eyes  ...  493 

Horses,  how  may  the  age  be 
judged  494 

Horses,  why  should  the  jirain  on 
which  they  are  fed  be  crushed  495 

Horses,  why  when  early  and  hard 
worked  do  they  never  arrive  at 
full  sixe  496 

Horses,  why  will  they  find  their 
way  in  the  dark  without  guide 
or  cheek  497 

Horses,  instinct  and  intelligence 
of,  in  the  dark  498 

Horses,  why  is  Mr.  llarey's  system 
of  taming  so  efficacious  ...  499 

Horses,  system  of  taming  pursued 
by  Mr.  llarey  explained 50t 

Horses,  why  is  the  health  ofl  sup- 


INDEX. 


xvu 


posed    to    be    improved   when 

goats  are  kept  in  the  stables  567 
Hounds,  packs  of,  mode  of  pur 
suing  the  hare  260 

llumming-birds,  why  motionless 

in  the  ak 772 

Humming-birds,  why  so  called  ...  773 

Humming-birds,  flight  of 774 

Humming-birds,  why  do  they  fly 

at  the  eyes  of  their  adversaries...  775 
Humming-birds,  why  are  the  nests 

of  warm  777 

Humming-birds,  why  is  their 

plumage  gorgeous  ..  778 

Hunting,  why  is  it  an  instinctive 

sport  among  men 599 

Hybemating  animals,  why  are 

they  enabled  to  live  throughout 

the    winter    without    food     or 

motion  406 

Hyenas,  why  are  they  denominated 

scavengers 316 

Idiocy,  form  of  the  head  charac 
teristic  of 55 

Incessores,  in-ses-so'-rees,  why  so 

named  684 

Incessores,  also  called  passeres  ...  685 
Infants,  why  is  milk  when  mixed 

with  water  most  suitable  for  ...  102 
Infants,  why  is  the  hearing  of,  in 
distinct  145 

Insecta,  in-seck'-ta 164 

Insectivora,  in-scck-tw'-o-ra,  why 

is  the  second  sub-order  of  car- 

naria  so  called  192 

Insectivorous,  in-teck-tio'-o-rus, 

birds,  useful  offices  of  220 

Instinct,  differs  from  reason  ...  618 
Internal  organs,  why  concealed 

from  sight 104 

Invertebrata,  in-vert-e-bra'-ta  ...  166 
Isle  of  Dogs,  why  so  called  ...  258 
Jacana,  jn-ka'-na,  why  has  it  toes 

of  extraordinary  length 911 

Jacana,  why  has  it  sharpened  spurs 

on  the  corner  of  each  wing  ...  912 
Jackal,  why  is  it  called  "  the  lion's 

provider" 312 

Jackal,  track  of,  followed  by  the 

tiger 313 

Jack,  why  are  the  fins  nearest  its 

gills  continually  moving  ...  1141 

Jack,  why  are  pike  so  called  ...  1073 

John  Dory,  why  so  called 1110 

Joints,  why  can  they  bear  so  much 

use 48 

Joints,  peculiarities  in  the  structure  49 
Kanguroos,  why  included  in  the 

order  of  marsupialia  336 

Kanguroo,  why  has  it  powerful 

posterior  organs 341 

Kangaroo  and  giraffe,  locomotion 

contrasted 342 

Kanguroo,  why  is  its  bounding 

movements  adapted  to  its  habits  343 
Kanguroos,  why  are  their  heads 

and  fore-paws  small  345 

Kingfisher,  how  is  its  bill  adapted 

for  obtaining  food 790 


Kingfishers,  why  have  they  small 

feet 702 

Knee-pan,  prominence  of 5(J 

Lamprey,  why   has  it  a  cartila 
ginous  mouth       1012 

Lark,  why  is  the  hind  claw  so  long    755 
Lark,  what  use  are  its  long  claws      757 
Lemmings,  why  do  they  migrate 
from  their  settlements    ...        ...    373 

Lemmings,  what  are  the  peculiar 

habits  of     374 

Lemurs-,  why  are  they  included  in 
the  same  order  with  monkeys  ...     180 

Lemurs,  why  so  called       181 

Leopard,  why  so  called      321 

Leopard,    distinction    between   it 

and  the  panther 322 

Leptocardia,  lep-to-card'-e-a,  why 
is  the  first  order   of  fishes   so 

called  1038 

Ligaments      68 

Linnet,  why  is  the  female  mistaken 

for  the  male          759 

Lions,  why  provided  with  large 

manes         209 

Lion,  why    termed   king   of  the 

forest        ' 210 

Lion,  encounter  with          212 

Lion,  why  is  the  tongue  of,  rough      214 
Lion,  why  does   he  wait  for  the 
giraffe  in  the  neighbourhood  of 

water  218 

Lion,  why  does  it  attack  the  giraffe 

when  in  the  act  of  drinking      ...    566 
Lip,   why   is  it  an    indication  of 

disease  when  blanched 80 

Liver,  how  are  its  functions  per 
formed         88 

Liver,  how  does  it  maintain   its 

position  in  the  body        Ill 

Lizards,   why  is  the  monitor    so 

called          1037 

Llama,  why  are  the  toes  of  sepa 
rated  and  pointed 524 

Lophobranchia,     lo-fo-brank'-e-a, 
why  is  the    fifth   sub-order  of 

fishes  so  named 1113 

Love-birds,  why  named     82? 

Lump-fish,  peculiar  habits  of      ...  1115 

Lungs 82 

Lungs,     how    do     they    indicate 
whether  an  infant  has  been  born 

alive  or  dead         81 

Lungs,  of  their  earliest  action      ...      85 
Lungs,  how  do  the}*  retain  their 

position  in  the  body        Ill 

Macaws,  why  so  named     806 

Magpie,  adapted  for  eithsr  a  tree 

or  ground  bird      748 

Magpies,     why    called     pilfering 

birds  747 

Magpie,  why  does  one  alone  por 
tend  bad  weather 748 

Malay,  why  is  the  race  so  called  ...        6 
Mammalia,  mam-rnu-le-a  ...         ...     1G4 

Man,     what     are     the     principal 

varieties  of  the  human  race      ...        i 
Man,  why  is  one  of  the  types  called 
Caucasian % 


XYiU 


INDEX. 


Man,  whr  is  one  of  the  types  called 
Mongolian  ...  ...  ...  ...  3 

Man,  why  is  one  of  the  types  called 
Ethiopian 4 

Man,  -why  is  one  of  the  types  called 
American 5 

Man,  why  is  one  of  the  types  called 
Malay  6 

Man,  why  have  the  primitive  types 
retained  their  characteristics  ...  7 

Man,  why  are  there  so  many  dif 
ferent  complexions  8 

Man,  how  are  various  habits  and 
modes  of  life  accounted  for  ...  10 

Man,  how  distinguished  from 
lower  animals  ...  ...  ...  11 

Man,  why  do  we  know  that  the 
varieties  have  sprung  from  one 
original  12 

Man,  why  is  his  face  adapted  to 
the  erect  attitude 14 

Man,  why  is  he  only  included  in 
the  order  bimana  168 

Man,  why  is  his  omnivorous  cha 
racter  beneficial  to  the  lower 
creation  598 

Man,  how  is  he  enabled  to  influ 
ence  the  forms  and  qualities  of 
various  animals 600 

Mane,  why  have  lions  a  large      ...     209 

March -hares,  why  are  persons  said 
to  be  as  mad  as  March  hares 
when  they  are  nighty  397 

Marsupialia,  mnr-su-pc-a'-lc-a, 
why  are  kanguroos,  opossums, 
&c.,  included  in  the  order  of  ...  336 

Marsupialia,  why  are  they  pro 
vided  with  pouches  337 

Marsupialia,  why  are  the  young 
born  in  a  helpless  condition  ...  339 

Marsupialia,  peculiar  gestation  of      340 

Martins,  why  appointed  a  distinct 
range  of  elevation  712 

Membrane,  why  is  there  none  en 
closing  the  skull  53 

Mice,  why  are  a  small  number 
beneficial  in  a  house  361 

Milk,  why  suitable  for  infants     ...     102 

Milk,  properties  of  various  kinds    103 

Mocking-bird,  why  so  called       ...     690 

Molar  teeth,  why  are  those  of 
carnivorous  animals  fitted  into 
each  other 207 

Mole,  how  adapted  to  its  mode 
of  life  193 

Molos,  comparison  of,  with  bats  ...     194 

Moles,  why  beneficial  to  farmers     195 

Moles,  why  supposed  to  have  no 
eyes 197 

Moles,  why  have  they  elongated 
muzzles  198 

Moles,  why  supposed  to  occasion 
"fairy-rings"  199 

Moles,  why  is  their  collar-bone 
long  and  thick  200 

Mole,  why  when  a  female  is 
trapped  is  «he  male  frequently 
found  dead 201 

Uollusca>  mof-lus'-ka        1(>5 


Mongolian,  mon-go-lc'-an,  why  is 

the  race  so  called I 

Monkeys,  why  are  they  described 

as  four-handed      170 

Monkeys,  why  divided  into  those 

of  the  old  world  -md  the  new  ...  173 
Monkeys,  wh\  con  ined  to  certain 

geographical  liir  its         174 

Monkeys,  how  are  their  imitative 

propensities  employed    175 

Monkeys,  imitative  propensities  ...  176 
Monkeys,  why  have  some  long 

tails 177 

Monkeys,  their  locomotive  powers  178 
Monkeys,  why  is  the  "  preacher  " 

so  called      179 

Monkeys,  why  are  lemurs  included 

in  the  same  order  180 

Monkey  and  crow 182 

Mules, 'why  said  to  be  stubborn  ...  5' '3 
Mules,  sagacity  of,  in  travelling  ...  504 
Muscles,  what  are  the  uses  of  ...  4f> 

Muscle 58 

Muscles,  offices  of  various 59 

Muscles,  why  are  they  of  numer 
ous  forms  and  attitudes 61 

Muscles,  action  of 62 

Muscles,  why  separated  from  sur 
rounding  parts  64 

Musk,  odour  of        273 

Musquitoes,  mus-ke'-tos,  why  do 
their  movements  betray  arma 
dillos  420 

Nails,  why  are  the  fingers  fur 
nished  with  27 

Nails   of    hands   and    feet,    hovr 

formed         29 

Nails,  peculiar  structure  of  ...  30 
Natatores,  na-ta-to'-recs,  whj  is 

the  order  so  called          916 

Natatores,    why  are    they  some 
times  called  "  palmipedes  "      ...    918 
Nerves,  what  are  they        ...        ...      60 

Nests,  why  are  those  of  birds  of 
prey  built  on  lofty  and  barren 

rocks H4S 

Newfoundland  dog,  anecdote  of  ...  294 
Newfoundland  dog,  clemency  of  ...  309 
Nictating  membrane,  what  is  it  ...  607 
Nocturnal  birds,  why  are  they 

very  large 673 

Nocturnal    birds,    why  arc    their 

eyes  placed  near  each  other  ...  674 
Nocturnal  birds,  why  do  their  eyes 

contain  a  shining  substance  ...  6*5 
Nocturnal  birds,  why  is  their 

plumage  tapered  off  to  a  point. . .  681 
Nuthatch,  why  has  it  a  short  tail  782 
Nuthatch,  method  of  procuring 

food 783 

Nuthatch,  why  docs  it  make  its 

nest  in  decayed  trees      784 

Ocelot,  o'-ce-lot.  why  so  called...  323 
Onaga,  why  is  it  found  in  hilly 

and  mountainous  places  ..  ...  505 
Ophidea,  o-fid'-e-a,  why  is  the 

third  order  of  reptiles  so  called     1017 
Opossums,  why  are  they  included 
in  the  or  *rof  marsupialia      ...    33fi 


INDEX. 


Org&as,  deep-seated,  how  do  we 
know  that  they  are  divested  of 
feeling  108 

Organs,  internal,  -why  do  they 
retain  their  places  in  the  body  110 

Ornythorynchus,  or-nc-tho-ring'- 
ku«,  why  so  called  426 

Ornythorynchus,  why  is  it  pro 
vided  with  a  duck-like  ap 
pendage  427 

Ostrich,  why  is  it  the  swiftest  of 
animals  875 

Ostrich  why  are  its  digestive 
organs  so  powerful  876 

Ostrich,  why  does  the  hen  con 
tinue  to  lay  while  incubating  ...  877 

Ostrich,  why  does  the  hen  aban 
don  her  nest  for  a  long:  period  ...  879 

Ostrich,  why  is  it  said  to  be  a 
neglectful  mother 881 

Ostrich,  why  docs  its  foot  resemble 
that  of  the  camel 883 

Ostrich,  why  has  it  small  and  light 
wings  885 

Otters,  why  when  hunting  fish  do 
they  swim  against  the  stream  ...  252 

Ouzel,  the  nest  of 700 

Oven-bird,  why  PO  called 830 

Owls,  why  able  to  turn  their  heads 
round  in  a  circle  ...  ...  ...  676 

Owl,  why  is  its  head  large 677 

Owls,  peculiar  provision  of  their 
ears 678 

Owls,  why  is  their  flight  feeble  ...    679 

Owls,  why  wrong  to  destroy 
them 680 

Ox,  why  is  it  one  of  the  most 
valuable  and  useful  beasts  ...  538 

Ox,  why  does  the  sight  of  blood 
and  of  red  colours  infuriate  it  540 

Oxen,  why  do  they  frequently 
stand  in  shallow  water  during 
hotweath-r  541 

Oxen,  why  have  they  a  licking 
motion  with  the  tongue  when 
grazing  542 

Oxen,  -why  so  easily  and  uni 
versally  domesticated  545 

Oxen,  why  have  they  divided 
hoofs 546 

Oxen,  wild  and  tame,  why  a 
greater  difference  than  between 
wild  and  tame  sheep  575 

Oxen,  acclimation  of          539 

Pachydermata,  pack-e-der-ma'-ta    429 

Pachydermata  ordinaria,  or-de- 
na-rea  431 

Pachydermata,  how  subdivided  ...    431 

Palmipedes,  pal-me-pt-dees,  why 
are  birds  of  the  order  of  nata- 
tores  so  called  918 

Panthers,  hearing  very  acute       ...     213 

Panther,  distinction  between,  and 
the  leopard 322 

Papillae,  pa-pil'-lay 31 

Pisroquettes,  par-ro-kets' ,  why  so 
called  811 

Paroquettes,  why  numerous  in 
America  ...  &12 


Parrot,  why  is  its  bill  thick  and 
powerful  ............ 

Parrot,  why  is  it  able  to  use  its 
bill  with  force  tmd  yet  with 
nicety  ............ 

Parrot,  why  has  each  species  its 
peculiar  residence  ...... 

Parrot,  why  are  there  marked  dif 
ferences  in  the  forms  of  their 
feet  ............... 


Parrots,  why  are  they  natives  of 

tropical  climates  ......... 

Parrots,  why  do  they  suffer  little 

from  confinement...        ...        ... 

Parrots,  why   do    they  chip   and 

gnaw  wood  ............ 

Parrot,    what    advantage   results 

from  the  mobility  of  its  upper 

mandible     ............ 

Parrot,  why  does  it  not  construct 

a  nest          ............ 

Parrot-fish,  why  so  called  ... 

Parrot-fish,   why  has  it  rounded 

jaws  and  scale-like  teeth          ... 
Passeres,  pas-see'  -rces,  why  called 

also  incessores       ......... 

Pelican,  why  has  it  a  large  pouch 
Petrels,  why  can  they  run  on  the 

surface  of  the  water        ...... 


why  is  the   third  sub-order  of 

fishes  so  called      

Pheasant,  why  does  its  plumage 

taper  to  a  point     

Pheasants,  why  do  they  perch  on 

larch  trees  

Physomata,  fi/-xnm-a'-tn^   why  is 

the  sub-order  of  fishes  so  named 
Pigeons,   why  have  they  a  puffed 

appearance  at  the  breast 
Pigeons,   how   are  young,  fed  by 

their  parents         ". 

Pigeon,  why  is  the  plumage  of  the 

rock,  close  and  compact 

Pigeons,  why  is  their  plumage  of  a 

sombre  hue. .. 
Pigeons,   how    is    their  structure 

adapted  to  their  powers  of  flight 
Pigeon,  why  does  the  rock,  prefer 

a  white-washed  house 

Pigeon,  why  does  the  rock,  walk 

upon  the  sea-beach         

Pigeon,   why  is  the  song  of  the 

ringed,  only  heard  in  spring  and 

autumn        

Pigeons,  why  do  they  return  to  the 

place  where  they  started  from... 

Pigeons,  power  of  flight     

Pigeon,   why  is  the  flesh   of  the 

wild,  less  delicate  and  palatable 

than  that  of  the  tame      

Pigs,  why  do  they  run  about  with 

straws  in  their  mouths 

Pigs,  why  is  it  said  that  they  cut 

their  throats  when  swimming  ... 
Pike,  why  do  they  appear  in  poads 

where  none  were  before.. . 
Pike,  why  is  their  presence  courted 

and  shunned  by  smaller  fish    ... 


801 
903 

804 
807 
808 
809 

810 

813 
1100 

1101 

685 
942 

938 

1096 
868 
869 

1048 
833 
834 
S3« 
838 
833 
840 
841 

847 

848 
849 

851 
470 
472 
1070 
1071 


JEST 


INDEX. 


Pike,  why  does  it  undergo  a  state 

of  torpidity  1072 

Pike,  why  also  called  jack  ...  1073 

Pike,  why  is  it  voracious  at  certain 

seasons  1074 

Pilchard,  why  are  few  caught  in 

the  cold  months  ...  „.  ...1055 
Pilchards,  in  what  does  it  differ 

from  the  berring 1056 

Pisces,  pia'-cecz,  what  are  they  ...  164 
Plagiostomata,  play-yi-ost-o- 

ma'-ta,  why  is  the  second  sub 
order  of  selachia  so  called  ...  1127 
Plectognatha,  plert-o-gnuy'-tha, 

Why  is  the  sub-order  of  fishes  so 

called  1118 

Pointer,  attitudes  of,  in  pursuit  of 

game...        ...        ...        ...        ...    271 

Polecat,  what  gave  rise  to  the 

saying  of  "  stinking  like  a  pole 
cat" 247 

Porcupine,  why  covered  with 

qulfts  383 

Pores  of  the  skin,  to  health  ...  101 

Porpoise,  why  said  to  roll 593 

Porpoise,  why  so  named  ...  ..  595 
Porpoise,  why  thought  to  foretell 

a  storm  596 

Proboscidea,  pro  -  bos  -  sid'-  e-a, 

what    is    the   meaning    of   the 

term  of  431 

Pupil  of  eye,  why  so  called  ...  125 
Quadrumana,  quod-roo-mfty'-na...  169 
Quadrumana,  why  are  monkeys 

included  in  the  order  of ...        ...     170 

Quadrupeds,  why  are  the  largest, 

found  in  Africa  606 

Quadrupeds,  why  are  the  larger, 

less  prolific  than  other  species  ...  610 
Quadrupeds,  why  are  the  feet  of 

small...  617 

Quadrupeds,  why  have  some,  a 

mixed  coating  of  hair  and  wool  640 
Rabbits,  why  do  they  burrow, 

while  hares  make  forms 394 

Rabbits,  why  are  they  fat,  while 

hares  are  lean  389 

Ridiata,  ra-de-a'-fa  165 

Rage,  why  does  it  redden  the 

cheeks  79 

Rarey,  Mr.,  why  is  his  system  of 

taming  horses  efficacious  ...  499 
Rasores,  ra-zo'-rccs,  why  is  this 

order  so  named  ...  853 

Rats,  why  beneficial  362 

Rat,  why  is  the  tail  long 365 

Rats,  why  said  that  they  "  always 

quit  a  falling  house  "  367 

Rats,  why  said  that  they  "leave  a 

sinking  ship"  368 

Ratting,  why  is  shifting  from  one 

party  to  another  so  termed  ...  369 
Rats  communicate  with  each 

other 370 

Rattlesnake,  why  has  it  a  rattle  ...  1023 
Haven,  characteristics  of  its  bill ...  730 
Raven,  habits  and  instincts  of  ...  731 
U  a veu,  why  termed  the  herald  of 

the  year      732 


Raven,  why  associated  with  sick 
ness  arid  misfortune  733 

Ravens,  why  more  social  than  birds 

of  prey  735 

Ray,  why  has  it  a  long  tail  armed 

with  spines  1130 

Reason  differs  from  instinct  ...  618 
Redbreast,  why  a  solitary  bird  ...  701 
Redbreast,  why  the  latest  bird  in 

the  evening 703 

Redbreast,  why  called  an  autumnal 

songster  704 

Redbreast,  why  associated  with  the 

wren 705 

Reindeer,  structure  adapted  to 

climate  532 

Reindeer,  its  horns  cf  assistance  in 

procuring  food  523 

Reindeer,  why  are  its  feet  deeply 

fissured  538 

Reptiles,  why  the  largest  in 

America  606 

Reptilia,  rep-till' -e-a  1002 

Reptiles,  why  are  they  so  named  1003 
Reptiles,  why  is  the  first  order  of, 

called  chelonia  1002 

Reptiles,  why  is  the  second  order 

of,  called  sauria 1008 

Reptiles,  why  is  the  third  order 

termed  ophidia  1017 

Reptiles,  why  is  the  fourth  order 

of,  called  amphibia  1026 

Reptiles,  why  have  they  a  move- 
able  lid  at  their  nostrils 1035 

Reptiles,  why  can  they  abstain  for 

a  long  time  from  food  and  drink  1036 
Reptiles,  why  are  they  termed 

cold-blooded  103* 

Rhinoceros,  why  so  called 459 

Rhinoceros,  why  provided  with 

horny  appendages  450 

Rhinoceros,  functions  of  the  horn  461 
Rhinoceros,  why  the  eyes  placed 

low  in  the  head 462 

Rhinoceros,  why  the  ears  of  easy 

and  quick  motion 463 

Rhinoceros,  why  is  the  skm  of  in 

numerous  folds     ...        ...        ...    464 

Rhinoceros,  Indian,  structure  of...  465 

Ribs,  the  structure  of  52 

Rifle-bird,  why  so  called 785 

Ringdove,  why  does  it  feed  greedily 

and  become  fat  in  the  autumn  842 
Ringdoves,  peculiar  habits  of  ...  843 
Ringdove,  why  does  its  form 

change  in  the  evening 850 

Roach,  why  when  angling  for, 

should  the  depths  be  tried  ...  1080 
Roach,  why  has  it  a  small  mouth 

without  teeth  1082 

Rodentia,  ro-den'-she-a  348 

llodentia,  teeth  of 349 

Rodents,  why  are  their  jaws 

lipht ...  350 

Rook,  why  the  earliest  bird  in  the 

morning  737 

Rooks,  why  docs  the  flight  of, 

foretell  the  weather  788 

Rooks,  shooting  of 73» 


INDEX 


xx3 


Rooks,  why  do  they  repair  their 
nests  in  autumn 740 

Rook,  adaptations  of  the  bill  and 
stomach  743 

Rooks,  why  are  they  frequently 
accompanied  by  starlings  ...  993 

Rope-dancing,  why  is  the  eye  im 
portant  in  120 

Rumiuantia,  roo-me-nan'-she-a  ...     507 

Ruminating  animals,  digestive 
organs  explained 509 

Rumination,  how  conducted        ...    510 

Ruminating  animals,  why  have 
they  cloven  feet 512 

Ruminating  animals,  why  are 
many  furnished  with  horns  ...  525 

Salmon,  why  do  they  arrive  earlier 
in  some  rivers  than  in  others  ...  1063 

Salmon,  why  do  female,  ascend  the 
rivers  before  the  males  when 
spawning 1064 

Salmon,  why  do  they  halt  in 
brackish  water  1066 

Salmon,  why  is  the  flesh  red        ...  1067 

Sand-eel,  why  ha*  it  a  projecting 
jaw 1090 

Sand-launce,  why  has  it  a  project 
ing  jaw  1090 

Sauria,  saw'-rc-a,  why  is  the 
order  of  reptiles  so  called  ...  1008 

Savage  tribes,  how  are  the  heads 
of,  flattened  93 

Scansorts,  skan-so'-rees,  why  is 
the  third  order  of  birds  so  termed  794 

Scansores,  why  also  called  zygo- 
dactyli  796 

Scent  in  dogs 272 

Sceut,  why  is  a  moist  atmosphere 
best  for 


274 
276 


Scent,  why  is  a  wet  day  unfavour 
able  for  

Scent,  why  is  there  little  when  the 
ground  is  hard  and  dry 277 

Scent,  why  does  it  sometimes  lie 
breast  high...  278 

Scent,  why  does  it  rarely  lie  with 
a  north  or  east  wind  

Scent,  state  of,  indicated  by  the 
manners  and  attitudes  of  dogs... 

Scent,  why  good  when  the  wind  is 
southerly 

Scent,  why  does  humidity  favour 


279 


281 

282 


its  transmission 
Scent,   why    seldom    good    when 

cobwebs  hang  on  bushes  ...     283 

Scent,  why  will  it  sometimes  be 

good  in  a  hard  rain  and  mild 

air 281 

Scent,  why  destroyed  by  sudden 

storms         285 

Scent,  why  not  good  on  sunshiny 

days 236 

Scrnt,  why  good  on  a  warm  day 

without  sunshine 287 

toont,  why  does  it  lie  badly  upon 

fallows  and  roads 288 

Scent,  why  good  by  hedge-rows  ...     289 
Bccnt,  why  does  it  differ  in  various 

breeds  of  dogs      290 


Sea,  why  is  it  sometimes  lumiaous  1161 

Sea,  why  does  it  contain  saline 
matter  1153 

Sea-birds,  why  are  they  able  to 
breast  the  waves 940 

Sea-horse,  why  has  it  a  pouch  in 
its  abdomen  1115 

Sea-horse,  why  has  it  a  pointed 
tail 1117 

Seals,  why  classed  among  car- 
nivora  324 

Seals,  why  they  abound  in  estu 
aries  and  straits  326 

Seal-hunters,  why  do  they  place 
themselves  near  holes  in  the 
ice  323 

Seals,  why  are  the  nostrils  of  sur 
rounded  by  hairs...  ...  ...  330 

Seals,  why  "their  nostrils  close 
habitually 332 

Seals,  why  their  eyes  are  peculiarly 
developed  ...  ...  ...  ...  333 

Sea-wolf,  peculiar  structure  of  the 
jaw 627 

Secretary  bird,  why  are  its  wings 
tipped  with  hard  points 682 

Secretary  bird,  why  esteemed  in 
America  683 

Seeing,  why  do  its  powers  depend 
greatly  on  exercise  ...  ...  113 

Seeing,  why  erroneous  to  suppose 
that  the  eye  takes  in  many  near 
objects  at  once  114 

Selachia,  sec-tack'-c-a,  why  is  the 
fifth  order  of  fishes  so  called  ...  11 24 

Senses,  why  placed  in  the  head  ...     112 

Serpents,  why  have  they  no  feet...  1018 

Serpents,  how  are  they  able  to 
move  without  legs  1019 

Serpents,  why  may  they  fall  from 
trees  without  injury  1020 

Serpents,  why  have  they  the  power 
of  fascination  1024 

Shanny,  why  docs  it  hide  behind 
stones  and  rocks 1083 

Sharks,  why  do  they  follow  ships  1128 

Sharks,  why  have  their  eggs  long 
filaments  attached  1129 

Sheep,  why  do  they  make  a 
nodding  motion  of  the  head  ...  570 

Sheep,  why  do  they  follow  each 
other  even  into  danger 572 

Sheep,  why  is  their  upper  lip 
divided  574 

Sheep,  wild  and  tame,  why  less 
difference  between,  than  between 
wild  and  tame  cattle  575 

Sheep,  why  so  much  bleating 
among,  after  shearing  641 

Shepherd's  dog,  why  are  its  habits 
the  result  of  training,  and  not 
instinct  296 

Shrike,  why  called  the  sentinel   ...     687 

Shrike,  why  called  the  butcher 
bird  689 

Sight,  why  essential  to  the  firm 
ness  of  the  body 110 

Sight,  in  old  age,  why  are  spec 
tacles  necessary  123 


INDEX. 


Sight,  how  are  defects  in,  detected 
by  jpticians  130 

Skin,  why  has  it  a  purple  hue 
when  cold 35 

Skin,  why  are  the  pores  essential 
to  health 101 

Skull,  why  the  only  cavity  in  the 
body  not  enclosed  by  a  mem 
brane  53 

Skull,  why  may  the  form  of  be 
altered  92 

Skylark,  why  does  the  song  of 
vary 758 

Sloth,  why  does  it  utter  the  sound 
of  "ai'*  404 

Sloth,  why  able  to  exist  through 
winter  without  food  405 

Sloth,  why  well  provided  with 
means  of  defence...  ...  ...  407 

Sloth,  why  erroneously  considered 
awkward  ...  408 

Sloth,  why  has  it  difficulty  in 
walking  on  the  ground 410 

Sloth,  how  adapted  to  the  locali 
ties  it  inhabits  413 

Sloth,  habits  and  instincts  of       ...     415 

Smell,  how  is  the  sense  produced       151 

Smell,  why  does  sniffing  air  in 
crease  152 

Smell,  why  does  closing  the  mouth 
increase  ...  ...  ...  ...  153 

Smelling,  why  are  the  organs  of, 
situated  so  near  those  of  tasting  154 

Smell,  why  is  the  sense  of,  in  dogs 
acute  268 

Snake,  how  does  it  throw  its  body 
from  the  ground 1021 

Snake-catchers,  why  are  they  able 
to  charm  snakes 1025 

Snipe,  why  has  it  a  long  tapering 
bill 894 

Snipes,  why  are  their  eyes  back 
ward  in  their  heads  895 

Snipes,  why  do  they  not  have  long 
hind  toes 896 

Sole,  why  r^es  its  skin  clear 
coffee  1092 

Soles,  why  are  they  destitute  of 
air-bladders  1093 

Soles,  why  do  they  swim  upon 
their  sides 1096 

Solids,  their  effect  upon  the  body        40 

Solidungula,  sol-id-uitg'-yu-la      ...     473 

Solidungulous  animals,  why  found 
in  a  wild  state  on  plains 475 

Souslik,  smcs'-lik,  why  has  it 
pouches  in  its  cheeks  ...  ...  359 

Sparrows,  why  useful  to  vegeta 
tion  751 

Sparrows,  why  bolder  than  most 
birds...  .!.  •••  752 

Sparrow,  why  does  the  house- 
sparrow  take  the  nests  of  other- 
birds 753 

Sparrow,  why  late  in  awaking     ...     754 

Species,  what  is  the  meaning  of  ...     1(53 

Spectacles,  why  needed  in  old  age      129 

Spermaceti,  what  is  it         ...         ...     587 

Spinal  colmnr.  why  flexible         ...       41 


Spine,  why  do  not  its  movements 

injure  the  brain 

Spoonbill,  why  has  it  long  man- 

dibles          

Sprats,  what  are  they 
Sprats,  why  do  they  usually  ap 
pear    soon   after  herrings  have 

spawned 
Squintinsr,     why     some     persons 

afflicted       

Squinting,  how  cured         

Squirrels,    why   do    they    convey 

food  to  their  mouths  with  both 

paws 

Squirrels,   why    grouped    as    the 

genus  sciurus        

Squirrels,  why  are  their  hind  legs 

only  slightly  shorter  than  their 

forelegs      

Squirrels,  why  are  their  tails  so 

long  and  bushy 
Squirrels,  why  are  their  eyes  fully 

developed 

Squirrels,  why  they  lay  up  stores 
Squirrels,  wrhy  some  called  flying 
Sta?.  why  so  eager  to  reach  water 

before  they  stand  at  bay 

Stairs,  why  said  to  shed  tears 
Starlings, Why  do  they  frequently 

accompany  rooks ... 
Statue,  why  cannot  stand  upright 

without  support 

Stickleback,    why    are    the    fins 

nearest     its     gills     continually 

moving       

Stomach,  what  is  the  form  of 
Stork,  why  an  enemy  of  the  cat 

species        

Storks,   why  are    they  voracious 

eaters          

Stork,  why  has  it  always  been  an 

object  of  favour  and  veneration 
Swallows,  why  appoint  a  distinct 

ransre  of  elevation 
Swallows,  why  adapted  to  migra 

tion 

Swallows,  why  are  the  nests  made 

round 
Swallows,    why    their   mandibles 

open  far  back 
Swallows,     how    do    they     build 

against  walls         

Swallows,  why  do  they  build  near 

dwellings  of  man 

Swallow,  why  is  the  esculent,  so 

called 
Swallows,   why    does    their    high 

flight  foretell  fine  weather    ... 
Swans,    wny     do    they     frequent 

shallow  waters 
Swans,     whv     are     their     wings 

capable  of  dealing  a  heavy  blow 
Swans,  why  do  they  fly  high 
Swans,  why  is  their  flight  governed 

by  the  wind  ...        ...        «.. 

Swan,   why    is    its    plumage    un 
changeable 

Swan,    why    is    its     dying     song 

fabulous 


905 
1057 


1058 


13'! 
133 


351 
352 

353 
355 

354 
356 
358 

527 
555 

993 
17 

1141 
100 

907 
908 
909 
712 
713 
714 
726 
71G 
717 
719 
724 
928 

929 
9:>3 

9:?:? 
QZ4 


INDEX. 


xxiii 


Swift,  why  does  it  seldom  alight 

on  the  ground  721 

Swifts,  how  do  they  gather  material 

for  nests  722 

Swifts,  why  appointed  to  a  distinct 

range  of  elevation  712 

Sword-fish,  why  is  its  jaw  furnished 

with  a  biade-like  weapon  ...  1108 
Syndactili,  si/.n-dac-tl' ~li,  why  so 

culled  788 

Tailor- bird,  why  so  named  ...  696 

Tailor- bird,  singular  ...  '  ...  697 

Tapir,  why  has  it  an  indurated 

skin  over  the  head  and  neck  ...  466 
Tasting,  why  are  the  organs  of, 

situated  so  near  those  of  smell- 

ing 154 

Tasting,  why  is  it  the  least  im 
paired  by  age  of  the  senses  ...  155 
Tears,  why  are  they  globular  ...  99 
Tears,  why  have  they  a  globular 

form 99 

Teeth,  why  not  covered  with  peros- 

teum 43 

Teeth,  why  is  there  a  difference 

between  the  front  and  back  ...  44 
Teeth,  why  are  the  gums  well 

adapted  for 94 

Teeth,  fixture  of,  in  the  sockets  ...  95 
Teeth  of  infants,  why  hidden  ...  96 
Teeth,  why  imperfectly  organized 

in    comparison    with    adjacent 

parts 97 

Teeth,  why  do  new  ones  appear  in 

advanced  age  98 

Teeth,  why  when  a  ticking  watch 

*s  placed  against,  do  they  conduct 

sound  150 

Teleostia,  tel-c-ost'-e-a,  why  is  the 

third  order  of,  so  named  ...  1044 

Tendons,  their  relation  to  the 

muscles  61 

Tendons,  what  are  they  65 

Tenuirostres.  ten-u-e-ros' -trees, 

why  so  designated  ...        ...    770 

Thick-headed  peopie,  why  so  called  54 
Thrushes,  why  dp  they  build  near 

human  habitations  708 

Thrush,  why  are  its  front  toes 

fastened  by  a  skin  710 

Tigers,  their  hearing  very  acute  ...  213 
Tiger,  why  the  tongue  of,  rough...  214 
Titmouse,  why  does  it  suspend  its 

nest  over  a  pond 762 

Toad,  instance  of  vitality 6-33 

Toads,  why  are  they  useful  in 

greenhouses  1033 

Toads,  why  can  they  live  em 
bedded  in  rock  or  stone 1034 

Tooth,  carnivorous 645 

Tortoises,  why  are  their  cheeks 

distended  while  breathing  ...  1006 
Toucan,  tuiv-kait',  why  so  named  816 
Toucan,  why  does  it  toss  back  its 

head  while  eating ...  817 

Toucan,  why  has  it  an  immense 

bill 819 

Touch,  why  considered  the  most 

important  of  the  senses 156 


Touch,  extreme  sensibility  of,  in 
blindness 167 

Touch,  why  more  vivid  -when  the 
circulation  is  active  158 

Touch,  why  is  the  sense  of,  occa 
sionally  illusive  159 

Trout,  why  arc  there  many  varieties  10(i8 

Trunk-fish,  why  covered  with  long 
plates  ..'.  1120 

Turtles,  why  are  they  covered 
with  hard  external  shells  ...  1004 

Turtles,  why  have  they  no  teeth...  1007 

Veins,  why  have  they  a  blue  ap 
pearance  75 

Veins,  why  do  they  sometimes 
swell 7€ 

Veins,  why  are  they  bound  up 
when  the  operation  of  bleeding 
is  performed  77 

Ventricles,  their  action  in  the 
circulation  of  the  blood 74 

Venues,  ver'-meez,  what  are  they      164 

Vertebrata,  ver-te-bxi'-ta 165 

Vulture,  why  a  cowardly  bird     ...    655 

Vulture,  description  of  the  bearded     656 

Vulture,  why  are  the  head  and  neck 
without  feathers 657 

Vulture,  why  does  it  soar  to  a  great 
height  653 

Vulture,  why  called  the  king       ...    660 

Wading-birds,  why  have  they 
long  legs  and  short  tails 889 

Wading-birds,  why  have  they 
wide-spreading  feet  891 

Wagtails,  why  do  they  congregate 
about  cows  707 

Walrus,  why  has  it  large  tusks   ...     335 

Water-shrew,  why  bright  and 
silvery  when  swimming 21)2 

Weasel,  whence  tie  proverb, 
"  Catch  a  weasel,"  &c 244 

Weasel,  why  an  excellent  hunter 
of  mice  245 

Weasel,  whence  the  proverb,  "  He 
builds  closely  with  dry  stones 
who  can  build  out  the  weasel "  249 

Whales,  by  what  means  are  they 
enabled  to  eject  water  in  a  spout  581 

Whales,  what  provision  have  they 
for  the  retention  of  heat 582 

Whales,  why  is  the  enormous  size 
of  the  head  no  impediment  to 
locomotion  ...  ...  ...  ...  583 

Whales,  structure  and  habits  of 
the  spermaceti  58' 

Whales,  why  have  they  the  flat 
surface  of  their  tails  placed  hori- 
/ontally  59r 

Whalebone     585 

White-bait,  what  arc  they 1059 

Wolf  and  dog,  what  are  the  points 
of  similarity  25: 

Wolf  and  dog,  why  a  difference  in 
the  pupils  of  the  eyes  ...  ...  255 

Wood-pigeon,  why  are  its  notes 
associated  with  gentleness  and 
love 845 

Woodcocks,  why  do  they  disap 
pear  from  ciUtivated  districta  ...  897 


xxiv 


INDEX. 


Woodpeckers,  why  are  their  sup 
posed  ravages  beneficial  ... 

Woodpeckers,  whjr  are  the  ex 
tremities  of  their  tails  hard  and 
elastic  

Wren,  why  does  it  make  several 
nests  

Wren,  why  associated  with  the 
redbroHst 703 


j  Wren,  why  are  the  toes  of  golden- 
797  crested,  fastened  by  a  skin  ...  710 

Wry-neck,  why  so  called 828 

Youth,  why  is  the  human  body 
789  soft  and  round  39 

Zebra,  why  found  in  hilly  and 
698  mountainous  places  505 

Zebra,  beautiful  form  and  colours    5M 


Nothing  is  foreign,  parts  relate  to  wtioie ; 

One  all-extending,  all-preserving  soul 

Connects  each  being,  greatest  with  the  least  ; 

Made  beast  in  aid  of  man,  and  man  of  beast." — V    *« 


TEE 


REASON    WHY: 

NATURAL    HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  L 

THE  NATURAL  HISTORY   OF  MAN.* 

1.  What  are    tJw    principal    types    of    tfte    varieties    of    fht 
human  race  ? 

The  types  generally  recognized  are  those  pointed  out  by  Blumen- 
bach,    consisting    of—  1.    The   Caucasian ;    2.    The   Mongolian 
3.  The  Ethiopian;  4.  The  American  ;  5,  The  Malay. 

2,  Why  is  the  first  of  tJiese  types  called  the  Caucasian? 

Because  the  tribes  from  which  this  great  division  of  the  human 
family  descended  have  for  many  ages  been  the  occupants  of  'ha 
mountain  chain  of  the  Caucasus. 

The  characters  of  this  variety  are,  a  white  skin,  either  with  a  ru^/ 

•  The  chapter  upon  the  Natural  History  of  Man  has  been  founded  upon  John- 
eon's  Physical  Atlas  ;  Prichard's  Physical  History  of  Mankind ;  Lawrence's  Lectures*, 
Latham's  Varieties  of  Man  ;  The  Encyclopaedia  mericana,  art.  Man ;  and  the  con- 
eluding  pages  of  Humboldt's  Cosmos.  For  the  subsequent  chapters,  a  grea* 
Dumber  of  authorities  have  been  consulted,  which  are  specified  in  the  list  of 
••Authorities." 


THE   REASON   WHY  C 


44  He  prayeth  best  who  loveth  be^t 
All  things  both  great  and  small; 
For  the  great  God  who  loveth  us, 
He  made  and  loveth  all."— COLERIDGE. 


tint,  or  inclining  to 
brown ;  red  cheeks ; 
hair  black,  or  of  the 
various  lighter,  e<>- 
lours,  abundant, 
and  more  or  less 
curled  or  waving ; 
hides  dark  in 
those  of  brown 
skin ;  light  blue, 
grey,  or  greenish, 
in  the  fair  or  rosy 
complexioned  ; 
large  cranium  wilij 
small  face,  the 
upper  and  anterior 
regions  of  the 
former  particularly 
developed,  and  the 
latter  falling  per 
pendicularly  under 
them  ;  face  oval 
and  straight,  with 
features  distinct  from  each  other;  expanded  forehead,  nrrrow 
ind  rather  aquiline  nose,  and  small  mouth  ;  front  tee^h  of  both 
•aws  perpendidular  ;  lips,  particularly  the  lower,  gently  turned 
>nt ;  chin  full,  rounded,  and  bearded. 

In  this  type  the  moral  feelings  and  intellectual  powers  are  most 
energetic,  being  susceptible  of  the  highest  development  and  culture. 
It  includes  all  the  ancient  and  modern  Europeans,  except  the 
Laplanders  and  the  nest  of  the  Finnish  race. 

The  sub-divisions,  or  varieties  of  this  type  are — the  Circassian,  or 
true  Caucasian ;  the  Syro- Arabian  :  Hindoo,  Celtic,  Grecian,  Italian, 
German,  Slavonic,  &c,>  and  Gypsies,  originally  from  the  banks  </ 
the  Indus,  from  whence  they  have  wandered  over  Europe. 


CAUCASIAN. 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


Know  then  thyself,  presume  not  God  to  scan, 
The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man." — POPE. 


3.   Why  is  the  second  of  these  types  called  the  Mongolian  f 
From    Ihe    vast    region   of   Mongolia,   over    which    they    are 
generally  spread. 

They  are  charac 
terized  by  an  olive 
colour,  which  in 
many  cases  is  very 
light  ;  black  eyes  ; 
black,  straight, 
strong,  and  thin 
hair ;  little  or  no 
beard  ;  head  of  a 
square  form,  with 
small  and  low  fore 
head  ;  broad  and 
flattened  face,  with 
the  features  run 
ning  together ;  nose 
small  and  flat  ; 
cheeks  projecting  ; 
eyes  placed  very 
obliquely  ;  slight 
projection  of  the 
chin  ;  with  the  cars  large  and  lips  thick.  The  stature,  par 
ticularly  in  the  countries  within  the  Arctic  circle,  is  inferior  to 
that  of  Europeans. 

The  sub-divisions  of  this  type  are  the  true  Mongols,  the  Tibetans, 
Chinese,  Burmese,  Siamese,  Samoeids,  Yeniseians,  Finns,  Lapps, 
Esquimaux,  Turks,  &c.  These  tribes  occupy  Central  and  Northern 
Asia,  the  Asiatic  Islands,  and  the  Arctic  coasts  of  Asia  and 
America. 

4.   Why  is  the  third  type   denominated  tJie  Ethiopian  ? 

Because  the  primitive  tribes  were  the  occupants  of  Ethiopia, 
M  the  country  of  the  dark  skinned,  the  ancient  name  of  Africa.  The 


MONGOLIAN. 


REASON  WHY: 


"  Be  not  of  us  afraid, 

Poor  kindred  man  !  thy  fellow-creatures,  we 
Front  Llie  :-aiiu-  Parent  power  our  being  drew. 
T!K-  sine  our  I/.uxl,  our  laws,  our  great  pursuit." — THOMSON. 


Ethiopian  embrn  ces 
the  African  central 
tribes  and  their 
varieties,  the  Ne 
groes  of  Western 
Africa,  and  the 
Kafirs  of  the  south. 
The  Central  Afri 
cans  are  marked 
by  an  elongated, 
narrow  cranium, 
crisp  and  curly 
hair,  projecting 
jaws,  thick  lips, 
and  black  or  dusky 
skin.  In  the  Negro 
the  skull  is  narrow, 
or  compressed  at 
the  sides,  and 
elongated  from  front  to  back,  the  dome  arched  and  dense,  the 
forehead  convex,  retreating,  and  narrow  ;  the  contour  of  the  head 
is  smooth  compared  with  the  angular  form  of  the  Mongol ;  the 
cheak  bones  project  forward  ;  the  bridge  of  the  nose  is  small  and 
flat,  the  nostrils  round  and  wide  ;  mouth  wide  with  thick  lips  ; 
hair  crisp  and  woolly,  except  the  eyebrows  and  eyelashes  ;  beard 
scanty  on  the  upper  lip,  and  chiefly  confined  to  the  point  of  the 
chin  ;  body  strong,  muscular,  and  symmetrical  ;  feet  broad  and 
heavy,  and  the  soles  flat.  In  the  Kaffir  the  cranium  rises  higher, 
and  is  more  rounded  than  in  the  Negro  ;  the  cheek  bones  project, 
the  eyes  are  small  and  dark,  the  eyelids  occasionally  oblique,  the 
face  tapers  towards  the  chin,  and  the  jaws  are  much  less  prominent 
than  those  of  the  Negro, 

5.     Why  is  the  American  type  so  called  f 

Because  it  includes  the  aboriginals  of  the  American  continent^ 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


"  Man  superior  walks 
Amid  the  glad  creation,  musing  nraise. 
And  looking  livtlv  gratitude." — THOMSON. 


which,  though  dis 
tributed  over  wide 
latitudes,  and  exhi 
biting  considerable 
diversity  of  form, 
have  a  general  phy 
sical  aspect  which 
is  common  to  the 
whole.  The  cheek 
bones  are  high,  the 
forehead  rather  low 
and  retreating  ;  the 
nose  prominent, 
not  unfrequently 
aquiline  ;  jaws 
powerful,  mouth 
large,  lips  full,  eyes 
small,  deep-set,  and 
black  ;  hair  coarse, 
black,  and  rather 
scanty,  beard 
scanty.  Skin  of  a  red  copper  colour,  and  glossy  in  some  North 
American  tribes,  and  of  a  yellowish-red,  light  brown,  and  sallow 
hue  in  the  various  tribes  of  South  America.  This  type  includes  all 
American  aborigines  except  the  Esquimaux,  which  are  Mongolian. 

6.   Why  is  the  ffth  type  called  the  Malay  ? 

Because  most  of  the  tribes  speak  the  Malay  language,  which,  in 
the  various  ramifications  of  this  race,  may  be  traced  from  Mada 
gascar  to  Easter  Island  in  the  South  Pacific,  half-way  between  Asia 
and  America.  The  characteristics  of  this  type  are  a  brown  colour, 
varying  from  a  light  tawny  tint,  not  deeper  than  that  of  the 
Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  to  a  deep  brown,  approaching  to  black  ; 
black  hair,  more  or  less  curled,  and  abundant ;  head  rather  narrow  ; 
bones  of  the  face  large  and  prominent  ;  nose  full  and  broad  towards 


AMERICAN — WOMAN. 


THE    REASON    WHY": 


'  Truth  bids  me  look  on  men  as  autumn  leave!*, 
And  nil  they  bleed  for  as  the  summer's  dust 
Driven  by  the  whirlwind." — YOUNG. 


the  point,  arid  mouth  large.  To  this  division  belong  the  inhabitants 
of  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  of  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  Celebes, 

and  the  adjacent 
islands  of  Australia, 
Van  Dieman's 
Land, New  Guinea, 
New  Zealand,  and 
the  numberless  is 
lands  scattered 
throughout  the 
South  Sea. 

7.  Why  have  ilu 
primitive  types  re 
tained  their  charac 
teristic  features 
chiefly  in  moun 
tainous  countries  ? 

Because      the 
stream    of    immi- 
MALAT.  gration      naturally 

takes  place  in  the  direction  of  rivers,  by  which  the  tribes  of  the 
plains  become  mixed  and  changed  ;  but  mountains  are  less  acces 
sible,  and  frequently  form  almost  impenetrable  boundaries.  We 
therefore  find  among  mountaineers  the  remnants  of  the  oldest  races. 

8.  }Vliy  are,  there  so  many  different  complexions  in  the  tribes 
composing  the  various  types  ? 

The  problem  has  occupied  the  attention  of  philosophers  and 
divines  in  all  ages.  The  result  of  their  investigations  shows  that 
no  single  cause,  but  a  variety  of  causes,  must  be  considered.  The 
most  important  of  them  are,  1,  climate  ;  2,  organization  ;  3,  inter 
marriage  ;  4,  exceptional  circumstances.  The  influence  of  climate 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  every  zone  is  more  or  less  marked  by  a 
distinctive  colour.  Black  prevails  under  the  equator,  copper  coioui 
under  the  Tropics,  olive  and  fair  towards  the  poles. 


NATURAL   BISTORT. 


'Tis  vain  to  seek  in  man  far  more  than  maa, 
Though  proud  in  promi&e  big  in  previous  thought, 
Experience  dumps  our  triumphs." — YOUNG. 


The  influence  of  organization  is  shown  in  rflany  instances  :  the 
Moors,  who  have  lived  for  ages  under  a  burning  sun,  still  have 
white  children,  and  the  offspring  of  Europeans  in  the  Indies  have 
the  original  tint  of  their  progenitors.  Different  complexions  are  in 
some  cases  intermixed  by  immigrant  races,  and  white  and  black 
people  dwell  together ;  and  complexions  are  modified  by  the  off 
spring  of  marriages  between  members  of  the  different  races.  But 
it  is  further  and  most  conclusively  demonstrated  by  an  examination 
of  the  skins  of  the  darkly-coloured  races,  in  which  a  secreted  colour- 
Ing  matter  is  found.  The  skin  is  thicker  and  harder  in  black  people 
than  in  white.  The  external  skin  of  each  is  transparent  and  colour 
less.  The  colouring  matter  of  the  coloured  races  lies  in  the  rate 
tnucosum,  or  inner  skin,  and  this  colour  is  seen  through  the  trans 
parent  true  skin,  just  as  white  people  see  the  traces  of  their  dark 
veins  through  the  same  cuticle.  The  influences  of  intermarriage  are 
abundantly  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that  the  union  of  black  and 
white  parents  generally  produces  children  of  an  intermediate  cha 
racter,  which  are  called  mulattoes  ;  and  of  exceptional  circumstances 
in  the  less  frequent  occurrence  of  the  birth  of  pie-bald  negroes, 
having  their  skin  diversified  with  black  and  white  spots,  and  part 
of  their  woolly  hair  white  ;  of  short  parents  producing  very  tall 
children,  &c. 

9.  The  eh.amje  of  colour  in  the  human  skin,  from  exposure  to  sun  and  air,  is  well 
known  to  be  temporary.  The  discoloration  which  we  term  "  tanning,"  or  being 
"sun-burnt,"  as  well  as  the  spots  called  "freckles,"  are  most  incidental  to  fair 
ekins,  and  disappear  when  the  parts  are  covered  or  no  longer  exposed  to  the  sun. 
The  children  of  the  husbandman  or  of  the  sailor  whose  countenance  bears  the  marks 
of  other  climes,  are  just  as  fair  as  those  of  the  most  delicate  and  pale  inhabitants 
of  a  city. 

10.  What  imparted  to  various  tribes  the  different,  Jvabits  and 
modes  of  life  for  which  they  are  remarkable  ? 

Chiefly  the  physical  features  of  the  countries  in  which  they  were 
born,  or  into  which  they  wandered.  The  people  who  established  them 
selves  in  the  frozen  regions  of  the  north  not  finding  enough  of  vege 
table  nourishment,  became  hunters  and  fishers.  Necessarily  separated 
from  each  other  for  the  pursui t  of  sustenance,  they  multiplied  slowly, 


THE   REASON   WHY  : 


*«•  So  from  the  first  eternal  order  ran, 
And  creature  link'cl  to  creature  man  to  man." — rop». 


and  civilization  remained  unknown.  Among  such  people  the  arts 
are  confined  to  the  construction  of  huts,  the  preparation  of  skins 
for  covering,  and  to  the  manufacture  of  spears  and  other  weapons. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of  Siberia,  and 
the  savages  of  North  America,  are  almost  the  only  people  who  arf 
now  to  be  found  in  this  primitive  state.  Those  people  who  feed 
numerous  herds  of  cattle,  in  localities  where  it  was  necessary  to 
seek  new  pastures  for  their  maintenance,  necessarily  adopted  a 
wandering  life.  Travelling  in  numbers,  they  acquired  ideas  of 
property  and  of  mutual  rights  ;  and  inequality  of  condition  sooi 
gave  one  man  power  over  another.  But  the  wandering  life  in  search 
i>f  new  pastures  and  more  agreeable  climates,  kept  them  still  within 
rery  narrow  limits  of  civilization.  The  Laplanders  in  the  north  of 
Europe,  the  Tartars,  who  inhabit  the  vast  region  in  the  interior  of 
Asia,  the  Bedouin  Arabs,  who  occupy  the  sands  of  Arabia  and  the 
north  of  Africa,  and  the  Caffres  and  Hottentots  in  Southern 
Africa,  are  the  principal  wandering  tribes  that  still  remain.  In 
countries  where  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  value  of  the  pro 
ductions  rendered  an  abiding  residence  essential,  people  took  to 
agriculture,  acquired  property  in  land,  developed  themselves  into 
classes,  instituted  laws,  became  less  predatory  and  warlike  ;  and 
when,  in  the  division  of  labour  and  duty,  the  functions  of  the 
civilian  became  separated  from  those  of  the  soldier,  the  civil  portion 
of  society  cultivated  various  improvements  and  assumed  the  habits 
of  civilized  men. 

11.  Wkai  is  the  chief  physical  distinction  between  man  anJ 
the  inferior  animals  ? 

The  brain  of  man  is  proportionally  much  larger,  and  the  jawa 
are  much  shorter  than  in  any  other  being.  The  brain,  by  its  great 
extent,  forms  the  protuberance  of  the  occipital  bone,  the  forehead, 
and  all  that  part  of  the  head  which  is  above  the  ears. 

In  the  inferior  animals  the  brain  is  so  small  that  most  of  them 
have  no  occiput,  and  the  front  is  either  wanting  or  but  little  raised. 
Man  combines  by  far  the  largest  cranium  with  the  smallest  face, 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


T)  man  she  pave,  in  that  proud  hour, 
The  boon  of  intellectual  power." — MOOHE. 


and  animals   deviate  from  these   relations  ia  proportion  as  they 
increase  in  stupidity  and  ferocity. 

12.  Why  may  we  feel  assured  that  all  the  varieties  of  man 
sprung  from  one  original  ? 

Because  we  have,  first,  the  Scriptural  history  of  man's  creation  ; 
and,  secondly,  scientific  investigations  entirely  support  the  unity  of 
man's  origin. 

Whilst  attention  was  exclusively  directed  to  the  extremes  of 
colour  and  of  form,  the  result  of  the  first  vivid  impressions  derived 
from  the  senses  was  a  tendency  to  view  these  differences  as  character 
istics,  not  of  mere  varieties,  but  of  originally  distinct  species.  Tho 
permanence  of  certain  types  in  the  midst  of  the  most  opposite  in 
fluences,  especially  of  climate,  appeared  to  favour  this  view,  not 
withstanding  the  shortness  of  the  time  to  which  the  historical 
evidence  applied.  But  the  many  intermediate  gradations  of  tho 
tint  of  the  skin  and  the  form  of  the  skull,  which  have  been  made 
known  by  the  rapid  progress  of  geographical  science  in  modern 
times  ;  the  analogies  derived  from  the  history  of  varieties  in 
animals,  both  domesticated  and  wild  ;  and  to  the  positive  observa 
tions  collected  respecting  the  limits  of  fecundity  in  hybrids. 

So  long  as  the  western  nations  were  acquainted  with  only  a  part 
of  the  earth's  surface,  partial  views  almost  necessarily  prevailed  ; 
tropical  heat  and  a  black  colour  of  the  skin  appeared  to  be  insepa 
rable.  When  the  first  Portuguese  navigators  sailed  for  purposes  of 
discovery  to  the  shores  of  Africa,  it  was  confidently  predicted  by 
learned  men  of  the  time  that  if  ever  they  returned  they  would  be 
as  black  as  the  negro  race. 

When  we  take  a  general  view  of  the  dark  coloured  African 
nations,  and  compare  them  with  the  natives  of  the  Australasian 
Islands,  and  with  the  Papuas  and  Alfourous,  we  see  that  a  black 
skin,  woolly  hair,  and  negro  features,  are  by  no  means  invariably 
associated. 

13    Linnaeus  was  the  flrst  who  ventured  to  class  man  in  a  scientific  system  with 
other  animals  ;  and  he  did  not  escape  the  censure  of  some,  as  degrading  tho 
dignity  of  the  human  race  by  such  an  approximation  ;  but  classification  is  a  mere 
1* 


10  THE   REASON   WIIT 


Happy  the  man  who  sees  a  God  employed 

Iu  all  the  good  and  ill  that  chequer  lite ! " — COWPER. 


statement  of  a  fact  in  anatomy,  and  the  philosopher  who  observes  and  interprets 
nature,  is  not  surely  to  blame. 

Man,  then,  whether  considered  as  the  head  of  the  animal  creation,  and  a  part  of  it ; 
or  as  a  sole  genus  and  sole  species,  distinct  from  others,  and  lord  of  all ;  whethei 
defined  to  be  a  biped  without  feathers,  or  a  quadruped  without  hoofs,  a  monkey  with 
a  voice,  or  a  monkey  without  a  tail, — if  viewed  solely  in  a  physical  light,  and  setting 
aside  his  divine  reason,  and  his  immortal  nature, — is  a  being  provided  with  two 
hands,  designed  for  prehension,  and  having  fingers  protected  by  flat  nails,  and  two 
feet,  with  single  soles,  destined  for  walking ;  with  a  single  stomach,  and  with  three 
kinds  of  teeth, — incisive,  canine,  and  molar. 

His  position  is  upright,  his  food  both  vegetable  and  animal,  his  body  naked.  It 
has  been  made  a  subject  of  dispute,  whether  there  is  more  than  one  species  in  tho 
human  race  ;  but  it  is  merely  a  dispute  of  words  ;  and  if  the  term  species  is  used 
in  its  common  scientific  sense,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  there  is  but  one  species 
There  are,  however,  certain  and  constant  differences  of  stature,  physiognomy,  color* 
nature  of  the  hair  or  form  of  the  skull,  which  have  given  rise  to  subdivisions  of  thia 
species. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE    STRUCTURE    OF    THE    HUMAN    FRAME  —  THE    BONES,    MUSCLES, 
TENDONS,    LIGAMENTS,    NERVES,    ETC. 

14.   Why  is  the  position  of  the  human  face  exactly  adapted  to  the 
erect  attitude  ? . 

Because  in  that  posture  the  plane  of  the  orbits  is  nearly  horizontal ; 
the  cavities  of  the  nose  are  in  the  best  direction  for  inhalino-  odours 

O 

proceeding  from  before  or  from  below  them  ;  the  jaws  do  not  project 
in  front  of  the  forehead  and  chin.  If  the  posture  were  changed,  as 
painful  an  effort  would  be  required  to  examine  an  object  in  front 
of  the  body  as  is  now  necessary  to  keep  the  eyes  fixed  on  the  zenith, 
and  the  heavens  would  be  almost  hidden  from  our  view  ;  the  nose 
would  be  unable  to  perceive  any  other  odours  than  those  which  pro 
ceeded  from  the  earth  or  from  the  body  itself ;  and  the  teeth  and 
li^s  would  be  almost  useless,  for  they  would  scarcely  touch  an  ob 
ject  or.  tho  ground  before  the  forehead  and  cliia  were  in  contact 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  11 


"  Ye  chief,  for  whom  the  whole  creation  smiles ; 
At  once  the  head,  the  heart,  the  tongue  of  all, 
Crown  the  great  hymn  !  " — THOMSON. 


with  it ;  while  the  view  of  that  which  they  attempted  to  seize  would 
be  obstructed  by  the  nose  and  cheeks. 

15.  Wliy  is  a  horizontal  posture  unfitted  for  the  human  body  ? 

Because  if  man  were  to  attempt  such  a  posture  he  would  b« 
compelled  to  rest  on  his  knees,  with  his  thighs  bent  towards  tha 
trunk  ;  an  attempt  to  advance  them  would  be  painful,  and  with 
his  legs  and  feet  would  be  immoveable  and  useless.  Or,  he  must 
elevate  his  trunk  on  the  extremities  of  his  toes,  throwing  his  head 
downwards,  and  exerting  himself  very  forcibly  at  every  attempt  to 
bring  forward  the  thighs  by  a  rotary  motion  at  the  hip-joinfe.  In 
either  case,  the  only  useful  joint  would  be  that  at  the  hip,  and  the 
legs  would  be  scarcely  superior  to  wooden  or  rigid  supports. 

16.  Wliy  is  the  variation  of  animal  bodies  most  common   in 
the  centre,    whilst    towards  the   extremities    there    is    comparative 
uniformity  ? 

Because  the  central  parts,  as  'the  skull,  spine,  and  ribs,  are  in 
their  offices  permanent ;  whilst  the  extremities,  as  the  hands  and 
feet,  are  adapted  to  every  exterior  circumstance.  In  all  animals 
the  office  of  the  cranial  part  of  the  skull  is  to  protect  the  brain, 
that  of  the  spine  to  contain  the  spinal  marrow,  and  that  of  the  ribs 
to  perform  the  part  of  respiration.  It  is  unnecessary,  therefore,  for 
these  parts  to  vary  in  shape,  while  their  offices  remain  the  same. 
But  the  shoulder,  on  the  contrary,  must  vary  in  form,  as  it  does  in 
motion,  in  different  animals  ;  so  must  the  shape  of  the  bones  and 
of  the  joints  more  distant  from  the  centre  be  adapted  to  their  va 
rious  actions,  and  the  wrist,  the  ankle,  and  the  bones  of  the  fingers 
and  toes  must  change  more  than  all  the  rest,  to  accommodate  the 
extremities  to  their  diversified  offices. 

17.  Why  cannot  a  statue  stand  upright  on  its  feet  without  support, 
although  it  may  be  a  modd  of  symmetry  in  all  its  parts,  and  is  placed 
in  that  attitude  which  is  the  most  adapted  to  man  ? 

Because  a  statue  has  but  one  centre  of  gravity,  and  when  that 


12  THE    REASON   WHY 


What  if  the  foot,  ordained  the  dust  to  tread, 

Or  hand,  to  toil,  aspired  to  be  the  head  ?  "—Peps. 


is  so  shifted  as  that  the  perpendicular  through  it  to  the  centre  of 
the  earth  falls  in  any  way  without  the  base  of  the  statue — that  is, 
without  a  figure  formed  by  lines  joining  all  the  external  points  of 
the  feet  upon  which  the  statue  rests— the  statue  must  necessarily 
fall  to  the  earth  with  all  the  passiveness  of  a  mass  of  matter  of  any 
other  shape.  The  human  body,  on  the  other  hand,  has  a  muscular 
feeling  of  the  centre  of  gravity,  in  consequence  of  which,  if  that 
centre  inclines  so  much  on  one  side  that  the  position  is  beginning 
to  become  unstable,  the  motions  and  flexions  of  the  limbs  instantly 
shift  the  centre  of  gravity,  or  rather  shift  the  attitude  of  the  body, 
so  as  to  accommodate  it  to  that  centre. 

18.  The  centre  of  gravitv  in  the  body  is  somewhere  in  the  height  of  it,  varying  a  little 
with  the  form  ;  and  if  this  centre  is  kept  in  the  perpendicular,  the  body  will  always 
maintain  the  position  of  the  greatest  stability,  whatever  may  be  the  flexures  or 
motions  of  the  other  parts ;  or  the  centre  of  gravity  may  move  so  as  to  be  over  any 
one  point  in  the  base  and  yet  be  stable,  only  the  stability  will  always  be  less  the 
nearer  that  the  body  is  to  one  side  of  the  base,  and  the  farther  it  is  from  the  oppo 
site  side.  The  number  of  positions  which  the  body  can  assume  while  on  the  same 
base  of  the  two  feet  is  almost  beyond  the  power  of  arithmetic  ;  and  as  the  positions 
of  thp  feet  themselves  may  be  also  greatly  varied,  the  command  which  we  have  of 
the  bo  i  by  means  of  our  power  of  working  it  upon  its  centre  of  gravity  is  truly 
wondt^-lul. 

19.  Why  is  the  sole  of  the  foot  arched  ? 

Because  by  this  arrangement  the  weight  of  the  body  is  made  to 
fall  on  the  summit  of  the  arch,  which  is  supported  by  a  strong  liga 
ment,  and  this  method  of  support,  as  is  demonstrated  by  bridges 
and  other  buildings,  is  the  strongest  and  most  secure  that  can  be 
devised. 

20.  \V~ky  is  the  human  hand  the  most  important  member  of  the 
whole 


Because  it  is  the  hand  which  gives  the  power  of  execution 
to  the  mind ;  and  it  is  the  relative  position  of  one  of  the 
fingers  to  the  other  four  which  principally  stamps  the  character  of 
the  hand  ;  for  the  thumb,  by  its  capability  of  being  brought  into 
opposition  witft  eacfy  of  the  other  fingers,  enables  the  hand  to  adapt 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  1J 


:  All  are  but  parts  of  one  stupendous  whole, 
Whose  body  nature  is,  and  God  the  soul." — POPE. 


itself  to  every  shape,  and  gives  it  that  complete  dominion  which  it 
possesses  over  the  various  forms  of  matter. 

21.    Why  is  the  hand   divided  into   several  parts  ? 

Being  thus  constructed  the  hand  is  capable  of  applying  a 
portion  or  the  whole  of  its  functions,  according  to  the  size,  form, 
and  weight  of  the  object  it  designs  to  handle. 

22.  Thus  the  smallest  things  we  take  up  with  the  tips  of  our  fingers;  those 
which  are  a  little  larger  we  take  up  with  the  same  fingers,  but  not  with  the  tips  ol 
them  ;  substances  still  larger  we  take  up  with  three  fingers,  and  so  on  with  four  or 
all  the  five  fingers,  or  even  with  the  whole  hand ;  all  which  we  could  not  do  were 
not  the  hand  divided,  and  divided  precisely  as  it  is. 

23.  Why   are  the  hands  made  equal  to  and  inclined  towards 
each  other  ? 

Because  when  bodies  of  a  great  weight  and  large  size  are  to  be 
grasped  on  opposite  sides,  it  is  necessary  that  the  instruments  which 
lift  them  should  be  capable  of  this  combined  action. 

24.  Why  are  the  extremities  of  the  fingers  soft  and  round  ? 

If  they  had  been  otherwise  formed,  or  made  of  bone  in 
stead  of  flesh,  we  could  not  then  lay  hold  of  such  minute  bodies  aa 
thorns  or  hairs.  For,  in  order  that  a  body  may  be  firmly  held,  it  is 
necessary  that  it  be  in  some  degree  enfolded  in  the  substance 
holding  it  ;  which  condition  could  not  have  been  fulfilled  by  a 
hard  or  bony  material. 

25.  Why   are  the  fingers  of  an  unequal   length  ? 

This  difference  in  the  length  of  the  fingers  serves  innu 
merable  purposes  in  connection  with  the  arts  and  ordinary  opera 
tions  of  life  ;  thus  a  pen,  a  pencil,  a  brush,  an  engraving  tool,  a 
sword,  a  hammer,  &c.,  may  be  more  securely  grasped,  and  used  with 
greater  facility  ;  for  if  the  fingers  were  of  an  equal  length,  one  would 
get  in  the  way  of  the  other,  and  pravent  the  whole  from  performing 
their  office  properly. 


!.4  THE    REAfiON    WHY  : 


Man !  know  thyself.    All  wisdom  centres  there  : 
To  none  man  seems  ignoble,  but  to  man  " — YOUNG. 


2G.  Wliy  are  the  palms  of  the  hands  and  the  insides  and  tips 
of  the  fingers  guarded  by  cushions  of  skin  ? 

If  it  were  not  for  this  protection,  the  strain  upon  the  blood 
vessels  and  nerves  would  be  too  great,  and  the  texture  even 
of  bones  and  muscles  would  not  be  able  to  sustain  the  demand 
made  upon  them. 

27.    Why   are  the  fingers  furnished  ivith  nails  ? 

If  the  fingers  were  not  thus  furnished,  the  flesh  would  be 
forced  out  of  its  position  and  incapable  of  supporting  hard  sub 
stances  ;  the  assistance  of  the  nails  is  also  necessary  in  retaining 
minute  objects  which  would  otherwise  elude  the  grasp. 

28.  The  nails  are  applicable  to  many  other  purpose?,  and  in  polishing  and  scraping, 
in  tearing  and  peeling  off  the  skins  of  vegetables  and  animals,  and  in  almost  ever/ 
act  where  nicety  of  execution  is  required. 

"29.  How   are   the  nails   of  the  hands  and  feet  formed? 

The  nails  are  a  part  of  the  scarf  skin,  and  present  the  same  pheno 
mena/)!'  adaptation  to  the  surface  of  the  sensitive  skin,  but  in  a  more 
»triking  manner.  The  portion  of  sensitive  skin  which  gives  support 
to  the  nail  is  formed  into  very  delicate  longitudinal  folds,  which 
stand  up  perpendicularly  to  the  surface.  The  nail  upon  its  under 
surface  is  fashioned  into  thin  vertical  plates,  which  are  received 
between  the  folds  of  sensitive  skin  ;  and  in  this  manner  the  two 
kinds  of  laminae  reciprocally  embracing  each  other,  the  firmness  of 
connecti  >n  of  the  nail  is  maintained. 

30.  If  *c  took  on  the  surface  of  the  nail  we  sec  an  indication  of  its  structure  in 
the  alternate  red  and  white  lines  which  are  there  observed;  the  former  of  these 
correspond  with  the  sensitive  laminae,  the  latter  with  the  horny  plates,  and  the 
ribbed  appearance  of  the  nail  is  due  to  the  same  circumstance.  These  sensitive 
lamina1  arc  provided  with  an  unusual  number  of  blood-vessels  for  the  formation  of 
the  nail,  and  hence  they  give  a  red  tint  to  that  portion  under  which  they  lie;  but 
nu.m-r  the  ro:>t  of  the  nail,  there  is  a  part  which  is  not  laminated,  but  merely 
ridged  longitudinally,  and  is  less  abundantly  supplied  with  capillary  vessels.  Tula 
lam  i  part  consequently  iroks  pale  if  compared  with  the  preceding.  The  root  of  the 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  15 


"  Vast  chain  of  being !   which  from  God  began, 
Natures  othcriul,  human,  angel,  man." — POPE. 


nail  IB  embedded  in  a  fold  of  sensitive  skin  to  the  depth  of  about  a  twelfth  part  of  an 
Inch  for  the  fingers  and  toes,  about  the  eighth  part  of  an  inch  for  the  thumb,  and 
the  sixth  of  an  inch  for  the  great  toe. 

31.   What  are   the  papilla? 

Papillae  arc  the  terminations  of  the  nerves  on  the  surface  of  the 
skin,  soft  and  pulpy,  and  forming  minute  protuberances,  resembling 
the  nap  of  frieze  cloth,  though  greatly  inferior  in  magnitude.  These 
nerves  are  a  species  of  animal  feelers,  and  are  the  immediate 
instruments  of  sensation. 

32.  When  examinin g  or  enjoying  any  object,  it  is  natural  to  enquire,  What  are  the 
Changes  produced  in  the  nervous  papillae  or  organs  of  sensation  ?  If  an  object 
possessed  of  agreeable  feeling  is  perceived,  the  nervous  papilla;  instantly  extend 
themselves,  and  from  a  state  of  flaccidity  become  comparatively  rigid.  When  a 
person  in  the  dark  inclines  to  examine  any  object,  in  order  to  discover  its  figure  or 
other  qualities,  he  perceives  a  kind  of  rigidity  at  the  tips  of  his  fingers.  If  the 
fingers  are  kept  long  in  this  state  the  rigidity  of  the  nervous  papillae  will  give  him 
a  kind  of  pain  or  anxiety,  which  is  caused  by  the  over  distention  of  the  papillae. 
If  a  small  insect  creep  upon  a  person's  hand,  when  the  papillae  are  flaccid,  ita 
movements  are  not  perceived ;  but  if  he  happen  to  direct  his  eye  to  the  animal,  he 
immediately  extends  the  papillae,  and  feels  distinctly  all  the  motions  of  the  insect. 

33.  Why  is  the  cuticle  slightly  rough,  instead  of  being  perfectly 
smooth,  as  might  be  hastily  considered  its  'most  appropriate, 
characteristic  ? 

Because  the  slightly  rough  surface  endows  it  with  a  quality  more 
adapted  to  convey  sensation.  An  illustration  of  this  truth  is  fur 
nished  by  the  imperfect  sense  of  touch  which  contact  with  polished 
surfaces  affords,  as  compared  with  the  handling  of  rough  bodies. 

34.  A  provision  for  increasing  friction  is  especially  necessary  in  some  parts  of  the 
skin.  Thus  the  roughness  of  the  cuticle  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  in  the  sole  of 
tb<z  foot,  gives  us  a  firmer  grasp  and  a  steadier  footing.  Nothing  is  so  little  apt  to 
slip  as  the  thickened  scarf-skin,  either  of  the  hand  or  the  foot. 

35.   Why  has  the  skin  a  purple  hue  when  exposed  to  cold  '{ 

Because  the  vigour  of  the  nervous  power  is  reduced  by  cold  ;  and 
in  addition  to  the  repulsion  inward  of  most  of  the  blood  contained 
within  the  vessels  of  the  skin  producing  pallor,  that  which  remains 


16  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


Know,  Nature's  children,  all  divide  h*r  care, 

The  fur  that  warms  a  monarch,  vanned  a  bear." — P:>PE. 


behind  moves  so  languidly  through  the  capillaries,  that  the  change 
from  bright  red  to  deep  black  red  has  time  to  be  established  before 
it  completes  its  circuit  and  reaches  the  veins. 


36.    Why  is  fat  necessary  to   the  system  ? 


Its  principal  uses  are  mechanical.  It  surrounds  the  organs  like 
an  elastic  cushion,  so  as  to  protect  the  more  delicate  parts  from 
sudden  and  injurious  shocks.  The  soles  of  the  feet,  for  example, 
upon  which  the  whole  weight  of  the  body  rests,  and  which  in  loco 
motion  are  subject  to  frequent  concussion  and  pressure,  are  pro 
tected  by  a  cushion  of  fat,  which  breaks  the  shocks  which  would 
otherwise  take  place  between  the  foot  and  the  ground,  in  the  same 
manner  as  do  the  buffer-cushions  which  are  placed  between  the 
carriages  of  a  railway  train. 

37  There  is  another  physical  quality  in  fat  which  renders  it  of  considerable 
utility  in  the  animai  economy.  It  is  nearly  a  non-conductor  of  heat,  and  as  it  is 
generally  collected  in  a  superficial  stratum  investing  the  organs,  it  prevents  the 
undue  escape  of  heat,  and  keeps  the  body  warm  ;  it  thus  performs  the  part  of  a 
blanket  or  clothing,  and  it  is  found  accordingly  that  fat  persons  are  less  chilly  than 
thin  persons. 

38.    Why  does  hair  form  so  appropriate  a  covering  for  the  head  ? 

The  hairs  by  their  number  and  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  disposed,  are  well  adapted  to  deaden  any  strokes  which  may  fall 
on  the  head,  and  to  prevent  strong  pressure  from  wounding  the 
skin.  Being  bad  conductors  of  heat,  they  form  a  sort  of  felt,  whose 
meshes  intercept  the  air,  and  by  that  means  preserve  a  uniform 
temperature  in  the  head,  to  a  certain  degree,  independent  of  that  of 
the  aii  and  of  surrounding  bodies  ;  besides,  being  impregnated  with 
an  oilv  matter,  the  hair  imbibes  but  a  small  quantity  of  water,  and 
v<-r\  MOOII  dries. 

30.  WTiy  is  the  human  body  soft  and  round  in  youth,  <ind  hcvrd% 
unequal,  and  angular  in  advanced  life  ? 

Because  the  softness  and  roundness  of  form  of  the  human  body  b» 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  17 


"  There  closely  braced, 
And  neatly  fitted,  it  compresses  hard 
The  prominent  and  most  unsightly  bones, 
And  binds  the  shoulders  flat." — COWPER. 

NX^^~vys^~^rw^^wv~^-*~y^/-x^^x^v^N^w^x~^-^x^ 

owing  to  the  greater  proportion  of  fluids  to  that  of  solids  ;  the 
younger  the  age  the  greater  the  preponderance  of  fluids.  The  human 
embryo  when  first  perceptible  is  almost  wholly  fluid  ;  solid  sub 
stances  are  gradually  but  slowly  superadded,  and  even  after  birth  the 
preponderance  is  strictly  according  to  age  :  for  in  the  infant  the  fluids 
abound  more  than  in  the  child;  in  the  child  more  than  in  the  youth  ; 
in  the  youth  more  than  in  the  adolescent ;  in  the  adolescent  more 
than  in  the  adult ;  and  in  the  adult  more  than  in  the  aged. 

40.  The  fluids  are  not  only  more  abundant  than  the  solids,  but  they  are  also  more 
important,  as  they  afford  the  immediate  material  of  the  organization  of  the  body  ; 
the  medium  by  which  its  composition  and  decomposition  are  effected.  They  bear 
nourishment  to  every  part,  and  by  them  are  carried  out  of  the  system  its  noxious 
and  useless  matter. 

41.   Wliy  is  the  spinal  column  flexible  ? 

This  flexibility  renders  the  movement  of  the  body  free, 
easy,  and  varied,  and  accommodating  to  the  complex  combination  of 
motion  which  may  be  brought  into  play  at  any  moment,  with  the 
rapidity  of  the  changes  of  thought,  and  at  the  command  of  the  im 
pulses  of  feeling.  If  the  spinal  column  were  composed  of  a  rigid  and 
immoveable  pile  of  bones,  all  the  other  parts  of  the  body,  to  which 
they  are  directly  or  indirectly  attached,  would  have  been  rendered 
stiff  and  mechanical  in  their  movements,  and  would  not  have  beer 
able  to  move,  save  in  a  given  direction. 

42.  The  degree  of  flexibility  which  the  spinal  column  possesses,  and  the  extei*. 
to  which,  by  the  cultivation  of  it,  it  is  sometimes  actually  brought,  is  exemplified  'T 
the  positions  and  contortions  of  the  posture-master  and  the  tumbler.  It  is  acquir*-r 
by  means  of  the  compressible  and  elastic  matter  interposed  between  the  seve~a 
vertebrae.  So  compi-essible  is  this  substance  that  the  human  body  is  half-an-ir>«  "' 
shorter  in  the  evening  than  in  the  morning,  having  lost  by  the  exertions  of  the  d** 
so  much  of  its  stature  ;  yet,  so  elastic  is  this  matter  that  the  stature  lost  during  tr .•* 
day  is  regained  by  the  repose  of  the  night. 

43.  IVhy  are  all  the  bones  of  the  body  covered  with  a  dehccu* 
coating,  termed  periosteum,  except  the  teeth? 

ila<i  so    exquisitely  sensitive  a  mombrano   as    the 


7  (E    REASON    WHY  '. 


"  In  human  work«,  though  laboured  on  -with  pain, 
A  thousand  movements  scarce  our  purpose  gam  ; 
In  God's  one  single  can  its  ends  produce  ; 
Yet  nerves  to  second  too  some  other  use."  —  POPE. 

invested  the  teeth,  as  it  invests  every  other  bone  of  the  body,  ac 
tion,  necessary  exposure,  and  irritation  would  have  subjected  the 
animal  to  continual  pain.  General  as  it  is,  it  was  not  the  sort  of  integu 
ment  which  suited  the  teeth  ;  what  they  stood  in  need  of  was  a  strong, 
hard,  insensible  defensive  coat,  and  exactly  such  a  covering  is  given 
to  them,  in  the  ivory  enamel  which  adheres  to  their  surface. 

44.  Why  are  the  front  teeth  of  the  mouth  sharp  and  the  back 
teeth  broad  and   blunted? 

Because  the  office  of  the  former  is  to  cut  and  separate  the  food  ; 
while  the  purpose  of  the  latter  is  to  grind  it  to  a  pulp,  by  which  it 
becomes  fitted  for  the  process  of  digestion. 

45.  What  are    the    uses,  distinct    and    mutual,   of  the    bones 
and  muscles  ? 

The  bones  are  to  the  body  what  the  masts  and  spars  are  to  a  ship 
—they  give  support  and  the  power  of  resistance.  The  muscles, 
again,  are  to  the  bones  what  the  ropes  are  to  the  masts  and  spars  ; 
it  is  to  them  that  the  bones  are  indebted  for  the  preservation  or  the 
change  of  their  position.  If  the  bones  or  masts  are  too  feeble  in  pro 
portion  to  the  weight  which  they  are  required  to  sustain,  then  a  de 
viation  from  their  shape  or  position  takes  place  ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  the  muscles  or  ropes  are  not  sufficiently  strong  and  wel1 
bra^fd,  then  insufficiency  of  support  must  necessarily  result. 

46.  /iarly  infancy  affords  an  instance  of  both  of  the  above-mentioned  imperfec 
tions  <ue  bones  being  infirm,  and  the  muscles  small  and  destitute  of  true  fleshy 
fibres  The  disease  called  "  Softness  of  the  bones,"  is  an  illustration  of  what  may 
be  C;...CT.  a  weak  mast  of  the  body,  which  must  yield  if  its  muscles  be  strongly 
drawi,  f  he  state  of  muscular  debility  consequent  on  fever  and  many  acute  diseases, 
>r  eve*,  ^n  sudden  fright,  is,  on  the  other  hand,  an  instance  of  the  inability  of  the 
tones  alone  to  preserve  an  attitude  or  execute  motion,  when  the  muscular  system 
2<?  by  disease. 


47.   Why  is  the  cylindrical  form  of  the  long  bones  of  the  body 
advantages   to   structure   of  the   human  frame  ? 

The  superior   advantages    oi  this  arrangement   are   illustrated 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  19 


"  The  man  who  consecrates  his  hours 
By  vigorous  effort,  and  an  honest  aim, 
At  once  he  draws  the  sting-  of  life  and  death." — Yotmo. 


fVdows : — Tf    a  piece   of    timber  supported    on    two    point*. 


" 


bear  a  weight  upon  it,  it  sustains  this  weight  by  different  qualities  in 
its  difterent  parts.  For  example,  divide  it  into  three  equal  parts, 
A,  B,  0  ;  th:3  uppar  part,  A,  supports  the  weight  by  its  solidity  and 
resistance  to  compression  ;  the  lowest  part,  B,  on  the  other  hand, 
resists  by  its  toughness  or  adhesive  quality.  Between  the  portions 
acting  in  so  different  a  manner,  there  is  an  intermediate,  neutral,  or 
central  part,  C,  which  may  be  taken  away  without  materially  weak 
ening  the  beam,  which  shows  that  a  hollow  cylinder  is  the  form  of 
strength. 

48.  How  is  it  that  the  joints  of  the  body  undergo  so  much  use 
for  many  years  without  diminution  of  their  action? 

This  durability  is  attributable  to  tho  provision  which  is  made  for 
preventing  wear  and  tear,  first,  by  the  polish  of  the  cartilaginous 
surfaces  ;  secondly,  by  the  healing  lubrication  of  the  mucilage,  and 
in  part  to  that  astonishing  property  of  animal  constitutions,  assimi 
lation,  by  which  in  every  portion  of  the  body,  let  it  consist  of  what 
it  may,  substance  is  restored  and  waste  repaired. 

49.  The  union  of  joints  even  where  no  motion  is  intended  or  required,  carries 
narks  of  mechanism  and  mechanical  wisdom.  The  teeth,  especially  the  front  teeth, 
are  one  bone  fixed  in  another,  like  a  peg  driven  into  a  hoard.  The  sutures  of  tho 
skull  are  like  the  edges  of  two  saws  clapped  together  in  such  a  manner  us 
that  the  teetV  of  one  enter  the  intervals  of  the  other.  We  have  sometimes  one  bone 
lapping  over  another,  and  planed  down  at  the  edges  ;  sometimes,  also,  the  thir. 
lamella  of  one  bone  re-curved  into  a  narrow  furrow  of  another.  In  all  of  \vhu-h 
varieties  we  discover  the  same  design ;  namely,  firmness  of  junction  w iiln>u< 


20  THE    REASON   WHY: 

"  Each  night  we  die, 

Each  morn  arc  born  anew  :  each  day  a  life 
And  shall  .ve  kilt  each  day  1     If  trifling  kills, 
Sure  vice  must  butcher." — YOUNU. 

AO.  How  are  the  strength  and  lightness  of  the  human  body 
preserved  independently  of  the  bones  ? 

By  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  consequent  on  the  air-tight 
character  of  the  bag  formed  by  the  synovial  membrane  (which 
secretes  the  oily  fluid  of  the  joints),  and  which  is  of  itself  more  than 
sufficient  to  keep  the  articulating  surfaces  of  the  bones  in  contract. 

51.  This  admirable  fact  is  most  readily  demonstrated  by  the  hip-joint.  The 
round  head  of  the  thigh-bone  is  received  into  a  socket,  thus  constituting  what  is 
familiarly  known  as  a  ball-and-socket  joint;  and  all  communication  between 
the  cavity  of  the  joint  and  external  fluids  is  cut  off  by  the  synovial  membrane. 
The  power  thus  exercised  by  the  atmosphere  is  about  one-fifth  greater  than  would 
be  necessary  to  support  a  limb  weighing  thirty  pounds,  and  the  barometer  would 
require  to  fall  twenty-five  inches  to  place  the  limb  and  the  atmosphere  in  exact 
equilibrium.  The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  shoulder  joint  is  capable  of 
supporting  a  weight  nearly  twice  that  of  the  arm,  and  the  force  thus  exercised  upon 
the  elbow-joint,  knee-joint,  and  highest  joint  of  the  fore-finger  are  respectively 
six  times,  nine  times,  and  thirty-five  times  greater  than  are  requisite  for  the 
support  of  the  fore-arm,  leg,  and  finger. 

52.  What  is  the  structure   of  the  rib&? 

The  ribs  are  a  frame  of  bones  which  enclose 
a  hollow  space.  The  lungs  and  heart  are 
within  them.  The  ribs  are  fastened  in  front 
to  a  bone  called  the  breast-bone,  and  are 
jouied  at  the  oack  to  the  backbone.  In  front, 
the  rib-bones  are  joined  to  the  breast-bone  by 
gristle,  and  this  gives  them  a  certain  amount 
of  flexibility,  and  enables  them  to  move  more 
easily  when  the  lungs  fill  with  air. 

53.  Why  is    the    skull  the  only  cavity  in  the  body  that  is   not 
enclosed  by  a  membrane  ? 

Because  the  importance  of  the  brain  to  life,  and  the  extreme 
tenderness  of  its  substance,  make  a  solid  case  more  necessary  for  it 
than  is  required  for  any  other  part.  The  skull  also  completely 
aurrounding  its  contents,  is  calculated  not  for  motion,  but  solely  for 
defence. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  2L 


Hope  humbly  then ;  with  trembling  pinions  soar ; 
Wait  the  great  teacher  Death,  and  God  adore." — POPE. 


54.  WHiy  are  persons  remarkable  for  their  stupidity  commonly 
termed  "  thick-headed  ?" 

The  bones  of  the  cranium  which  are  in  connection  with  those  of 
the  face,  require  to  increase  proportionately  in  their  growth,  so  as  to 
keep  pace  with  the  face,  and  preserve  the  symmetry  of  the  parts. 
This  they  do,  however,  only  in  their  external  table,  the  internal 
remaining  to  preserve  the  symmetry  of  the  bones  of  the  cranium. 
From  this  inequality  of  development,  spaces  are  left  between  the  two 
tables  termed  sinuses.  In  the  forehead,  immediately  under  the  eye 
brows,  there  are  two  such  named  frontal  sinuses.  It  sometimes 
happens  that  the  brain  shrinks  from  disease,  as  in  idiocy.  In  such 
cases  the  internal  table  follows  the  brain,  and  the  distance  between 
the  two  tables  is  increased,  the  intervening  space  being  either 
filled  with  a  kind  of  refuse,  or  remaining  empty,  forming  unusually 
large  sinuses. 

55.  A  female  child  about  four  months  after  birth  was  noticed  to  have  an  unusually 
large  head.  Till  the  fourth  year,  however,  it  did  not  excite  much  attention,  and 
the  mental  powers  up  to  this  period  seemed  to  be  excited  in  the  ordinary  degree. 
At  this  period,  however,  the  head  began  rapidly  to  enlargo,  and  the  ro  ind  became 
more  and  more  obscured,  till  complete  idiocy  supervened,  and  continued  till  Her 
death,  which  occurred  in  her  twenty-second  year.  The  head  became  too  large  to  be 
supported  by  the  puny  muscles  of  the  neck  ;  she  therefore  constantly  lay  on  a  pallet 
by  the  side  of  the  fire.  She  appeared  to  have  some  slight  glimmerings  of  mind,  was 
readily  amused,  like  a  young  child,  with  noise  and  brilliant  objects,  and  for  years 
kept  rubbing  a  penny  piece  in  her  hands,  which  she  would  not  part  with  day  or 
night,  and  which  became  at  length  reduced  to  the  thinness  of  a  wafer. 

56.  What  purposes  are  served  by  the  projection  of  the  heel  and 
the  prominence  of  the   knee-pan  ? 

They  increase  by  mechanical  adjustment  the  power  of  the  muscles ; 
for  by  such  means  the  point  of  insertion  of  the  muscles  is  removed 
to  a  distance  from  the  centre  of  motion  in  the  joint,  and  the  lever 
power  thus  obtained  is  greatly  increased. 

57.  Why  is  it,  that  although  the  bones  are  designed  for  the  strength 
ening  and  support  of  the  frame,  yet  ihey  never  touch  each  other  ? 

Because  were  it  not  for  the  fine  elastic  material,  the  cartilage, 
interposed  between  the  bones,  the  frame  would  be  deprived  Of  its 


22  THE     REASON   WHY  : 


How  poor,  how  rich,  how  abjest,  how  august, 
How  complicate,  how  wonderful  is  man." — YOCNO.' 


elasticity.  Without  such  elasticity,  a  jar  would  reach  the  more 
delicate  organs,  even  in  the  very  recesses  of  the  body,  at  every 
violent  motion  ;  and  every  joint  would  crack  by  the  attrition  of  the 
surfaces  of  the  bones. 

58.     What  is  a   muscle? 

A  muscle  is  composed  of  long  slender  fibres,  which  possess  the 
power  of  contracting,  and  are  everywhere  enveloped  in  common 
cellular  membranes  ;  the  fibres  become  fewer  as  they  approach  the 
extremity  of  the  muscle,  and  ultimately  terminate.  The  cellular 
substance  that  envelopes  them  being  thus  freed  from  the  muscular 
fibres,  joins  more  closely  together,  and  forms  itself  into  a  white, 
round,  or  flattened  tendon.  When  the  muscular  fibres  contract,  their 
power  is  united  on  the  tendon,  and  drawing  it  up,  makes  it  perform 
the  action  of  a  pulley. 

59.  Different  muscles  accomplish  very  different  purposes.  Some  of  them 
draw  down  the  limh  or  part  to  which  they  are  attached,  if  it  has  a  moveable  joint, 
and  is  placed  under  the  part  of  the  body  in  which  it  acts.  Others  elevate  and  ex 
tend  tke  moveahle  parts  to  which  they  belong,  and  are  placed  on  the  superior 
surface.  Some  muscles,  also,  move  on  the  parts  obliquely,  as  the  oblique  muscles 
of  the  eye,  and  others  make  them  describe  a  semi-circle,  as  in  the  motions  of  the 
neck,  arms,  legs,  &c. ;  some  elevate  the  upper  eyelids  ;  others  contract  them,  as  the 
eyebrows  :  or  wrinkle  them,  as  the  extremities  of  the  lips.  The  muscles  also  act  on 
the  legs,  arms,  fingers,  toes,  &c.,  in  moving  them  to  either  side.  Another  example 
of  their  power  is  instanced  in  the  forearm,  legs,  &c.  The  beauty  of  the  mechanism 
of  the  muscles  is  also  evinced  in  the  abdomen,  where  some  are  transverse,  others 
straight,  oblique,  &c. 

60.    What  are,  the  nerves  f 

They  are  a  species  of  fine  thread  running  from  every  part  of  the 
body,  charged  with  exquisite  sensibility,  by  which  they  convey 
the  impression  or  commands  between  our  will  and  our  muscles. 

The  vital  power  of  a  muscle  resides  in  the  nerves,  and  is  nervous.  Its  irritable 
power  is  the  property  by  which  it  feels  and  acts,  when  stimulated  without  conscious 
ness.  It  is  an  inherent  principle  belonging  to  its  constitution,  and  remains  some  time 
after  death.  Ligaments  and  tendons  support  the  same  weight,  whether  dead  or  alive  ; 
kut  a  living  muscle  that  lifts  one  hundred  pounds  with  ease,  cannot,  after  death, 
raise  twenty  pounds  without  danger  of  rupture.  When  a  muscle  is  newly  cut  from  a 
limb,  it  palpitates  and  trembles  for  a  considerable  time — it  cannot  be  nervous  power 
'hat  thus  makes  it  irritable  ;  for  the  nerves  being  separated  from  their  organ,  ait 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


«'  Look  round  our  world ;  behold  the  chain  of  Love 
Combining  all  below,  and  all  above." — POPE. 


dead  and  powerless.  If  the  heart  is  newly  separated  from  the  body,  it  contracts  if 
irritated.  The  bowels  continue  their  pcr..i|ultic  motion  after  death,  until  they  be 
come  stiff  and  cold.  This  quality  belongs  absomte.y  to  the  muscie.  and  exists,  in  some 
cases  without  nervous  irritability  altogether — hence,  there  is  a  distinction  between 
nervous  sensibility  and  muscular  irritability.  The  former  dies  immediately  witt 
the  animal ;  the  latter  lives  for  a  short  time  after  the  animal  is  dead.  Muscles  are 
irritab'e  and  contractile  by  the  inherent  principle  of  their  fibres,  and  are  sensible  by 
the  vitality  communicated  through  their  nerves.  Though  nerves  are  sensible,  they 
are  not  contractile,  and  cannot  perform  the  functions  of  muscular  fibres. 

61.  Why  do  ive  find -muscles  under  a  multiplicity  of  forms  and 
attitudes,  sometimes  with  double,  sometimes  with  treble  tendons,  some 
times  with  none,  sometimes  one  tendon  to  several  muscles,  at  other 
time*  one  muscle  to  several  tendons? 

The  reason  for  this  great  mechanical  variety  in  the  figure  of  the 
muscles,  *»  owing  to  a  fixed  law  that  the  contraction  of  a  muscle 
shall  be  towards  its  centre.  Therefore,  the  object  for  mechanism  on 
each  occasion  is  so  to  modify  the  figure  and  adjust  the  position  of 
the  muscle  as  to  produce  the  motion  required  agreeably  with  this 
law.  This  can  only  be  done  by  giving  to  different  muscles  a  diver 
sity  of  configuration  suited  to  their  several  offices,  and  to  their  situa 
tion  with  respect  to  the  work  which  they  have  to  perform. 

62.  The  illustration  of  this  principle  is  as  follows  :  A  is  the  tendinous  organ  ;  B 

the  tendinous  insertion,  and  the 
muscular  fibres  run  obliquely  be 
tween  them.  This  obliquity  of 
the  fibres  is  almost  universal  in 
D  the  muscles  of  the  limb,  and  the 
effect  is  very  important.  If  we 

pull  obliquely  uron  a  weight,  we  sacrifice  a  great  deal  of  power.  For  what  ad 
vantage,  then,  is  power  resigned  in  the  muscle?  If  we  wish  to  draw  a  tling 

towards  any  place  with  the  least 

lorce,  we  must  pull  directly  in  the 

line   between  the  object   and  ths 

place  ;  but  if  we  wish  to  draw  it  as 

quickly  as  possible,   without    any 

regard  to  the  loss  of  force,  we  must 

pull  it  obliquely  by  drawing  it  in 

two  directions    at    once.      Tie    a 

string  to  a  stone  A,  and  draw  it 

straight  towards  you  at  C  with  one 

l»aud ;  then  make  a  loop  on  ano-    ^     |  \s  / 

Vicr  string,   and  running  the  first 


24  THE   REASON    WHY  : 

"  Leisure  is  pain ;  takes  off  our  chariot  wheels ; 
How  heavily  we  drag  the  load  of  life; 
Blest  leisure  is  our  curse." — YOUNO. 

through  it,  draw  one  string  in  each  hand,  B,  B,  not  towards  you  in  the  lii><  A,  0» 
but  sideways,  till  both  strings  are  stretched  in  a  straight  line :  you  will  see  hotr 
much  swifter  the  stone  moves  than  it  did  before  when  pulled  straight forwara.  Nov* 
this  is  proved  by  mathematical  reasoning  to  be  the  necessary  consequence  of  iorces 
applied  obliquely ;  there  is  a  loss  of  power  but  a  great  increase  of  velocity.  The 
velocity  is  the  quality  required  to  be  gained. 

63.  By  what  mechanism  are  the  motions  of  the  arm  performed  ? 
The  arm  is  joined  to  the  body,  and  moved  by  numerous  powerful 

muscles  ;  and  is  fixed  to  the  breast  by  the  ligaments  of  the  collar-bone. 
The  muscles  that  move  the  shoulder-blade  lie  upon  the  trunk  ;  those 
that  move  the  arm  lie  upon  the  shoulder-blade  ;  those  that  move  the 
fore-arm  lie  upon  the  arm  ;  and  those  that  move  the  hand  and 
fingers  lie  upon  the  fore-arm.  But  as  the  arm  requires  easy,  circular 
motions,  it  has  a  multiplicity  of  parts  to  perform  them.  It  has  the 
wrist,  for  turning  it  round  ;  the  elbow,  for  its  hinge-like  motions  ; 
and  the  shoulder-joint,  on  which  it  rolls  ;  and  to  assist  all  those,  the 
mo^eable  shoulder-blade  becomes  the  centre  of  their  motions  ;  for, 
after  a  certain  point  of  elevation,  the  motion  of  raising  the  arm  is 
performed  by  the  action  of  the  shoulder-blade  upon  the  trunk  ; 
when  cur  shoulder-bone  is  raised  to  a  horizontal  position,  it  is 
checked  by  the  upper  part  of  the  shoulder-joint  which  hangs  over 
it  ;  and  if  we  elevate  our  arm  still  higher,  the  shoulder-blade  rolls, 
turning  upon  the  point  of  the  collar-bone  ;  and,  as  it  turns,  it  glides 
easily  upon  those  muscles,  which  lie  like  a  fleshy  cushion  between 
it  and  the  trunk  over  which  it  is  placed. 

64.  Why  are  the  muscles  often  removed  by  means  of  slender  strings 
from  the  parts  they  are  designed  to  rest  upun  ? 

Because,  in  many  cases,  the  situation  of  the  muscles  where  they 
are  immediately  required  would  be  inconvenient.  If  the  muscles 
which  move  the  fingers  had  been  placed  in  the  palm  or  the  back  of 
the  hand,  they  would  have  swelled  that  part  to  an  awkward  and 
clumsy  thickness  ;  the  beauty  and  the  proportion  of  the  part 
would  have  been  destroyed.  They  are,  therefore,  disposed  in  the 
arm,  and  even  up  to  the  elbow,  and  act  by  long  tendons  strapped 
down  at  the  wrist,  and  passing  under  the  ligaments  to  the  fingers 
%nd  to  the  joints  of  the  fingers  which  they  are  severally  to 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  25 


"  Since  God  is  ever  present,  ever  felt, 
In  the  void  waste  as  in  the  city  full  ; 
And  where  he  vital  breathes  there  must  be  joy." — THOMSON. 


move.  In  like  manner,  the  muscles  which  move  the  toes,  and 
many  of  the  joints  of  the  foot,  are  disposed  in  the  calf  of  the 
leg,  instead  of  forming  an  unwieldy  tumefaction  in  the  foot  itself. 
Thus,  also,  is  it  with  the  nictating  membrane  over  the  eye.  Its 
office  is  in  the  front  of  the  eye  ;  but  its  body  is  lodged  in  the 
back  part  of  the  globe,  where  it  lies  safe,  and  where  it  encumbers 
nothing. 

65.  What  are  tendons? 

Tendons  are  not  only  necessary  as  pulleys  tc  the  bones,  but  to 
give  the  limbs  a  proper  form,  and  preserve  their  beautiful  symmetry, 
Tendons  are  seldom  required,  except  where  muscles  are  inserted 
into  bones.  There  is  no  tendon  in  the  heart,  the  stomach,  the 
bowels,  or  the  gullet  ;  these  do  not  require  them,  for  the  motions 
are  wholly  contractile,  and  need  no  lever  power.  But  where  tendons 
pass  over  bones  and  traverse  joints,  the  force  is  concentrated  into 
narrow  bounds,  and  their  long  cords  being  fixed  to  the  extremities 
of  the  muscles,  pull  the  bones,  and  raise  them  in  obedience  to  our 
will.  Tendons  have  no  visible  nerves,  and  little  or  no  motion. 

66.  What  is  cartilage? 

Cartilage  is  intermediate  in  hardness  with  bane,  and  what  are 
called  the  soft  parts  —  it  is  firm  and  resisting,  and  yet  it  has 
a  great  deal  of  elasticity.  In  some  parts  of  the  body  there  are  car 
tilages  serving  for  continuations  of  bones,  such  as  those  which  con 
tinue  the  ribs  and  connect  them  to  the  breast-bone,  and  they  are 
exactly  similar  to  bones  from  which  the  earthy  parts  have  been 
dissolved  by  an  acid. 

67.  The  cartilaginous  crusts  which  cover  the  auricular  ends  of  bones  are  of  a  very 
be  utiful    and    peculiar    structure.      If  a  piece   of  bone    be    sawn    towards   its 
icular  end,  till  all  be  cut  through,  and  then  the  remaining  part,  and  the  cartilage 
ring  it  be  torn  asunder,  the  cartilage  will  be  found  to  present  an  infinity  of 
•cs  set  perpendicularly  on  the  surface  of  the  bone.     When  a  portion  of  the  bone 
its  articular  cartilage  has  been  soaked  in  -water  for  some  weeks,  the  cartilage 
f  rind  to  have  lost  its  smooth  surface  and  cohesion,  and  looks  exactly  as  if  the 
.U  !iud  been  coveted  with  white  velvet. 

2 


26  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  We  censure  Nature  for  a  span  too  short ; 
That  span  too  short  we  tax  as  tedious  too ; 
Fortune,  invention,  all  expedients  tire, 
To  lash  the  lingering  moments  into  speed." — YOUNG. 


68.   What  are  ligaments? 

Ligaments  are  composed  of  numerous  straight  fibres  collected  to 
gether,  and  arranged  into  short  bands  of  various  breadth,  parallel  or 
radiating,  and  interwoven  with  others  which  cross  them.  Sometimes 
the  ligament  is  so  formed  as  to  surmount  the  articular  ends  of  two 
bones  which  move  upon  one  another,  and  here  it  is  called  a  capsule* 
Ligaments  are  not  extensible  nor  elastic  ;  hence,  when  any  attempt 
is  made  to  stretch  them  too  far,  great  pain  is  the  result,  and 
inflammation  follows,  and  they  are  said  to  be  sprained. 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE    INTERNAL    ORGANS   OF   THE   HUMAN    FRAME:     THE   HEART, 
LUNGS,  LIVER,  STOMACH,  BRAIN,  ETC. 

69.  How  is  Hood  formed? 

The  food  which  we  eat  is  masticated  and  afterwards  swallowed  ; 
it  is  then  received  into  the  stomach,  where  it  is  prepared  by 
digestion  for  the  nourishment  of  the  body.  Here  tLere  is  a 
fluid  formed  which  changes  the  food  into  a  substance  cu'Jcd  chymer 
which,  passing  into  the  several  intestines,  is  there  con>.,rced  into  a 
milky  liquour  denominated  chyle.  This  is  the  fluid  letter  from 
which  the  blood  is  formed. 

70.  What  is  the  composition  of  blood? 

The  blood  may  be  described  as  consisting  of  innumerable  cells 
suspended  in  a  gelatinous  fluid.  These  cells  or  globules  are  formed 
of  thin  transparent  sacs,  evolving  a  reddish  fluid,  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  which  undergo  constant  changes,  in  consequence 
of  its  passing  to  and  fro  vessels  containing  a  denser  fluid.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  deeper  or  lighter  colour  of  the  blood  may  be  said 
to  depend  on  the  greater  or  smaller  number  of  the  globules.  The 
colour  may  also  become  darker  although  the  globules  are  dimin 
ished  ;  and  this  is  caused  by  the  blood  cells  assuming  a  more 
globular  form,  through  its  action  of  passing  in  the  vessel*,  con 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


27 


"  Blest  son  of  foresight,  lord  of  fate ! 
That  awful  independent  of  to-morrow ! 
Whose  work  is  done  ;  who  triumphs  in  the  past ; 
Whose  yesterdays  look  backward  with  a  smile." — YOUNG. 


Gaining  the   denser   fluids,   and    reflects   the   rays   of  light   in   a 
different  manner. 

71.  Hoivis  the  blood  in  the  human  body  circulated  and  purified  ? 

First,  the  heart  sends  the  blood  to  all  the  capillaries  through  one 
set  of  blood-vessels  called  arteries.  Then  the  blood  is  brought  back 
to  the  heart  by  another  set  of  blood-vessels  called  veins.  Next  by 
the  blood  which  returns  by  the  veins  is  impure,  and  is  sent  by 
another  set  of  arteries  from  the  heart  into  the  lungs,  to  be  purified 
by  the  air  we  breathe.  Then  it  is  brought  back  to  the  heart  by 
another  set  of  veins.  Thus  there  are  two  sets  of  arteries  and  veins 
through  which  the  blood  is  all  made  to  pass  ;  first,  through  the 
body  and  back  to  the  heart  for  the  purpose  of  nourishment,  and 
then  through  the  lungs  and  back  for  the  purpose  of  purification. 

72.  The  right  side  of  the  heart  receives  and  sends  out  the  impure  blood.    The  upper 

division  receives  it  from  the  body 
through  two  large  veins.  Then  the 
blood  passes  to  the  lower  division  of 
the  heart,  where  it  is  sent  to  the 
lungs  through  one  large  artery 
with  two  branches,  one  for  each 
lung.  This  is  the  pulmonary  artery . 
The  left  side  of  the  heart  receives 
and  sends  out  the  pure  blood.  The 
upper  portion  receives  it  from  the 
lungs  through  three  large  veins. 
Then  the  blood  passes  to  the  lower 
division  of  the  heart  when  it  is  sent 
to  the  capillariet  all  over  the  body 
through  one  large  artery  called  the 
aorta. 

73.  Why  is  the  blood  regarded  as  so  important  an  agent  in 
animal  economy  ? 

Because  the  blood  is  the  vehicle  of  life  to  every  atom  of  our 
organization.  By  properties  peculiar  to  itself,  all  the  various  fluids 
of  our  body  are  produced  from  it,  and  every  particle  of  bone, 
muscle,  membrane,  nerve,  and  vessel  must  have  existed  as  an  in 
gredient  of  the  blood,  and  have  been  conveyed  to  its  appropriate 


28 


THE   REASON   WHY: 


"  All  men  think  all  men  mortal  but  themselves ; 
Themselves,  when  some  alarming  shock  of  fate 
Strikes  through  their  wounded  hearts  the  sudden  dread." — YOUNG. 


place  by  this  circulating  spring  of  energy  and  nourishment.  No 
vital  action  is  maintained  without  blood,  and  should  it  cea&e  to 
flow  through  the  brain,  all  the  sense  would  be  speedily  shut  up, 
and  every  function  speedily  superseded. 

74.  In  the  accompanying1  engraving  the  circulation  of  the  blood  as  performed  by 
a  single  heart  is  depicted  :  V  represents  the  ventricle,  or  strong  muscular  bag  of  th« 
heart,  which  when  filled  with  blood  contracts  upon  it,  just  as  any  other  muscle 
does,  and  so  forces  out  the  contents  through  the  pipe  which  arises  from  it,  called 
the  aorta,  just  as  the  contents  of  an  india-rubber  bag  are 
squeezed  out  through  a  pipe  fixed  in  its  neck.  The  only 

Ol  1  difference  is,  that  whereas  an  external  force  squeezes  the 
bag,  the  heart,  beir.g  muscular,  has  a  power  of  contraction 
of  its  own,  and,  as  it  were,  squeezes  itself ;  and  then,  just 
like  the  india-rubber  bag  which  regains  its  shape  when  the 
pressure  is  removed,  so  the  heart,  when  it  has  squeezed 
out  all  the  blood,  dilates  itself  again,  and  is  ready  to  con 
tract  anew.  The  blood  having  been  poured  into  the  great 
artery,  goes  through  branches  up  to  the  head,  and  down  to 
the  lower  part  of  the  body,  where  its  minute  or  capillary  ter 
minations  are  seen  to  end  in  veins.  Those  from  the  lower 
part  «f  *Ha  body  form  an  inferior  great  vein ;  those  from 
the  upper,  *  superior :  and  the  two  veins  terminate 
separately  into  a  bag  A,  called  the  auricle.  The  auricle  is 
not  nearly  so  sti'ong  as  the  ventricle,  because  it  has  nothing  to 
with  f()rcing  the  blood  over  the  body;  it  is  in  tended  merely 
as  a  receptacle  for  the  venous  blood,  till  the  ventricle  be  ready  to 
receive  it.  The  auricle  is  constantly  full  of  blood,  which  flows 
to  it  through  the  veins  in  an  equable  stream,  so  that  when 
ever  the  emptied  ventricle  dilates,  the  blood  from  the 
auricle  rushes  in,  and  distends  it  for  a  renewed  contraction. 
The  arteries  are  a  set  of  tubes  both  dilatable  and  elastic.  Hence  at  the  moment 
•when  the  ventricle  contracts,  the  blood  which  is  forced  into  them  distends  them, 
increasing  their  diameter,  and  producing  the  feeling  communicated  to  the  fingers 
placed  over  them,  which  is  called  the  pulse.  The  number  of  the  pulse  is  therefore 
the  number  of  contractions  which  the  heart  is  making  in  a  minute ;  and  at  the 
moment  when  the  ventricle  dilates,  the  artery,  having  the  distending  force  taken 
off,  contracts  on  its  contents.  It  would  now  drive  part  of  the  blood  back  again 
into  the  ventricle  were  it  not  for  a  valve  placed  in  the  artery  at  its  origin,  which 
shuts  down  the  moment  the  pressure  comes  on  it  backwards,  so  that  the  force  of 
the  elasticity  of  the  artery  is  expended  in  propelling  the  blood  forward,  not  in  an 
equable  stream  but  in  successive  waves.  Again  ;  when  the  ventricle  contracts  tc 
throw  its  blood  into  the  aorta,  it  would  throw  back  an  equal  portion  into  the 
auricle,  were  not  a  valve  placed  there  also,  which  shuts  the  moment  the  ventricle 
•on  tracts. 


NATURAL    H1STORT  29 


At  thi-rty  man  suspects  himself  a  foo., 

Knows  it  at  forty,  and  amends  bis  plan." — YOUNG. 


75.  }Vliy  have  veins  a  blue  or  black  appearance,  although  blood  is 
of  a  r&d  colour  ? 

Because  the  oxygen  which  the  blood  originally  contains  is  ab 
sorbed  as  it  passes  through  its  course  of  circulation,  and  the 
blood  is  discoloured.  But  when  it  is  again  sent  through  the  lungs, 
it  receives  a  fresh  supply  of  oxygen  and  regains  its  colour. 

76.  Why  are  the  veins  sometimes  seen  to  swell  ? 

As  long  as  the  veins  that  proceed  from  the  organs  are  free,  the 
blood  that  arrives  in  them  from  the  arteries  runs  on  and  does  not 
accumulate  in  them  ;  but  if  the  veins  are  compressed,  or  cannot 
empty  themselves  of  the  blood  always  arriving  by  the  arteries,  and 
finding  no  place  in  the  veins,  accumulates  on  the  tissue  of  the 
organ,  distends  the  blood-vessels,  and  augments,  more  or  less,  its 
volume,  particularly  if  its  physical  properties  can  undergo  these 
changes.  The  swelling  of  the  brain,  by  the  difficulty  of  the  circula 
tion  happens  every  time  that  the  blood  has  more  difficulty  in  passing 
through  the  lungs  ;  and  as  that  generally  takes  place  in  expiration, 
the  brain  swells  in  this  instance  so  much  more  in  proportion  as 
the  expiration  is  more  complete  and  of  larger  continuation. 

77.  Why  is  a  ligature  tied  round  the  arm  when  it  is  bled  ? 
Because  the  veins  have  valves  placed  in  them  at  certain  distances, 

which  prevent  the  blood  from  flowing  backward  from  the  heatf 
towards  the  extremities  ;  when  the  ligature  is  tied  the  blood  is 
constantly  arriAring  from  below,  because  the  pressure  is  not  great 
enough  to  obstruct  the  arteries,  but  it  cannot  get  up  past  the 
bandage  ;  the  veins  are  therefore  distended  and  become  prominent, 
so  as  easily  to  be  seen  and  punctured  ;  and  then  as  the  blood  cannot 
get  down  the  arm  again  on  account  of  the  valves,  it  is  necessitated 
to  flow  out  at  the  orifice. 

78.  IVliy  does  moderate  cold  act  as  a  stimulant  to  the  system? 

Because  cold  repels  the  blood  from  the  surface,  braces  and  con 
tracts  the  integuments,  and  lessens  the  transpiration.  The  thinner 
and  superfluous  quantity  of  the  circulating  fluid  is  no  longer 
thru  vvn  from  the  surface,  but  is  drained  off  in  the  fluid  state,  and 


30  fHE   REASON    WHT  ! 


Then  say  not  man's  imperfect,  Heaven  in  fault ; 
Say  rather,  man's  as  perfect  as  he  ought ; 
His  knowledge  measured  to  his  state  and  place; 
Hi*  time  a  moment,  and  a  point  his  space." — POPE. 

thus  all  the  heat  which  would  have  been  requisite  for  its  conversion 
into  vapour  is  preserved,  and  affords  additional  nourishment  to  the 
system. 

79.  Why  does  fear  cause  the  cheeks  to  turn  pale,  while  rage  makes 
them  red  ? 

Because,  when  persons  are  affected  by  fear,  the  respiration  and  the 
afflux  of  arterial  blood  are  diminished,  and  paleness  of  the  skin  con 
sequently  ensues  ;  but  when  the  passions  are  excited,  respiration 
and  the  afflux  of  arterial  blood  are  increased,  and  a  flushed  state  of 
the  cheeks  follows. 

80.  Why  is  n  pale  cheek  and  blanched  Up  an  indication  of 


Because  the  lesser  or  greater  number  of  globules  present  in  the 
blood  is  made  known  in  the  one  case  by  the  pallor  of  the  cheek, 
and  in  the  other  by  its  florid  appearance.  And  as  these  red 
globules  are  the  carriers  of  oxygen,  and  consequently  in  a  great 
measure  the  exciters  of  vital  action,  it  follows  that  the  g*eneral  state 
of  the  health  is  necessarily  regulated  by  the  supply  of  these 
important  agents. 

81.  Why  is  headache  increased  by  a  fit  of  coughing  ? 
Because  expiration  assists  the  heart  in  propelling  the  blood,  and 

as  the  act  of  coughing  considerably  increases  expiration,  the  flow  of 
blood  to  the  brain  is  greatly  augmented,  and  the  consequent 
distended  state  of  the  vessels  adds  to  the  aching  of  the  head. 

82.  What  are  the  lungs? 

The  two  lungs  are  placed,  on  each  side  of  the  spine,  in  hollow 
sjaces  formed  by  the  arching  of  the  ribs.  They  may  be  compared 
to  large  pieces  of  sponge,  which  alternately  suck  in  and  squeeze  out 
the  blood  of  the  body  and  the  air  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 
The  air  passes  and  re-passes  by  the  same  tubes.  The  air-tubes,  com 
mencing  with  the  wind-pipe,  and  branching  off  frequently  in 
different  directions,  beoome  gradually  smaller  and  more  numerous, 
until  they  terminate  in  minutf  expansions,  which  are  the  air-cells 


HISTORY. 


"  We  gaze  around; 

We  read  their  movements  ;  we  sigh ;  and  wl  ile 
We  sigh,  we  sink,  and  are  what  we  deplored."— YOUNO. 


of  the  lungs.  The  blood  is 
r.dsed  into  the  lungs  by 
one  set  of  tubes  or  vessels 
termed  arteries,  and  passes 
back  by  another  set  of  vessels 
termed  veins.  When  the  ribs 
are  raised  and  the  floor  of 
the  chest  drawn  down  by  the 
muscles  of  inspiration,  the  walls  of  the  chest  fall  in,  or  when  they 
are  brought  nearer  together  by  the  muscles  of  expiration,  the  due 
proportion  of  air  and  blood  is,  by  gentle  pressure,  sent  out  from 
the  interior  of  the  lungs.  A  firm  and  elastic  membrane  lines  the 
inside  of  the  chest,  and  the  same  membrane  passing  back,  covers 
in  the  lungs,  forming  their  outer  coat  By  this  doubling  of  th« 
membrane,  the  lungs  without  being  attached  except  at  their  roots, 
where  the  lobes  enter,  are  held  by  their  own  elastic  action  in  cloa« 
contiguity  to  t&e  chest,  and  thus  they  move  freely  with  it* 
movements. 

S3.  The  right  lung  is  divided  into  three  parts  or  lobes;  the  left  lung  is  divide* 

into  two  lobes,  between  which  is  a 
space  where  the  point  of  the  heart 
lies.  Each  lung  is  contained  in  J. 
email  membranous  bag  called  the 
pleura,  and  the  air-vessels  whiah 
axe  connected  with  the  windpipe, 
through  which  we  breatiie,  run 
along  between  the  blood-vessels  in 
the  lungs,  and  eo  give  to  them 
that  quantity  of  air  which  is  re 
quired  to  change  the  colour  of  the 
blood  and  to  render  it  fit  for  cir 
culation.  The  accompanying  en 
graving  will  serve  to  illustrate 
the  structure  and  position  of  t-he 
lungs ;  in  the  centre  is  a  membrane 
which  divides  the  chest.  The  ribs 
are  cut  of£,  so  as  to  show  the  in 
side  of  the  chest.  The  diaphragm 
which  divides  the  chest  from  the 
has  been  removed.  Th« 


32 


THE   REASON  WHY 


1  Man  flies  from  tirae,  and  time  from  man ;  too  soon 
In  sad  divorce  this  double  flight  must  end." — YOUNG. 


three  lobes  of  the  right  lung  and  the  two  lobes  of  the  left  lung  are  shown  in  their 
proper  positions,    g  is  the  windpipe  through  which  air  is  admitted. 

84.  Why  are  the  lungs  capable  of  indicating  whether  an  infant 
found  dead  has  been  still-born  or  not? 

Because  lungs  which  have  never  breathed  are  heavier  than 
water,  and  sink  ;  but  lungs  which  have  breathed,  if  only  once,  ai'e 
lighter  than  water,  and  swim. 

85.  The  lungs,  previously  to  birth,  are  compressed  like  a  squeezed  sponge,  and  ex 
pand  whenever  the  pressure  is  taken  off.  The  moment  they  expand  tbe  air  rushes 
in  by  the  nostrils  and  mouth  ;  and  the  force  with  which  it  enters  causes  the  expan 
sion  a  little  beyond  the  natural  state.  This  acts  as  a  stimulus  upon  the  muscles, 
which  immediately  contract,  dimmish  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  and,  in  conjunction 
with  the  elasticity  of  the  lungs,  expel  the  air  till  the  lungs  are  again  reduced  to  less 
than  their  natural  capacity,  and  this  stimulates  the  antagonists  of  the  former 
muscles,  namely,  those  which  expand  the  chest,  and  they  assist  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  in  again  filling  the  lungs.  The  expansion  of  the  lungs  is  always  pro 
duced  by  their  own  elasticity,  for  no  muscular  apparatus  could  work  so  fine  a 
structure  ;  but  the  expansion  of  the  chest  gives  room  ;  and  the  contraction  of  the 
chest  again  occasions  the  expulsion.  Thus  the  lungs  are  set  going  by  atmospheric 
pressure  and  elasticity ;  and  the  action  is  kept  up  and  regulated  by  this  and 
muscular  force  conjointly. 

86.  Why    does  the    chest 
heave  when  we  breathe  ? 

Because  when  we  inspire 
the  air,  the  ribs  are  drawn 
upward  and  outward,  and  the 
diaphragm  at  the  same  time 
is  fou:ed  down.  When  we 
expire  the  air,  the  ribs  return 
to  their  natural  place,  whilst 
the  diaphragm  is  again 
drawn  up. 

87.  In  the  accompanying  illustra 
tion,  the  front  half  of  the  ribs  being 
cut  away,  the  interior  cf  the  chest  is 
exposed.     C  C  is  the  cavity  of  the 
chest,  empty.    D  J)  1)  D  the  dia 
phragm,  rising  high  in  the  centr» 


NATURAL    IIISTOltr.  33 


Life's  cares  are  comforts ;  such  by  Heaven  designed  ; 

lie  thu-t  has  none  must  n*ake  them  or  be  wretched." — YOUNG. 


lind  descending  very  low  at  the  sides  and  behind.  The  white  space  is  its  ten- 
donous  portion.  The  lower  part  is  muscle  that  contracts  to  draw  it  downward. 
A  A  is  the  abdomen. 

88.  Wliat  is  the  liver,  and  how  are  its  functions  performed  ? 

The  liver  lies  horizontally  on  the  right  side  of  the  body  immediately 
below  the  diaphragm,  and  is  protected  by  the  interior  ends  of  the 
lower  ribs.  Its  function  is  to  secrete  the  greenish-yellow  fluid,  the 
gall  or  bile,  which  is  conveyed  from  the  liver  by  a  canal  called  the 
hepatic  duct.  On  the  lower  surface  of  the  liver  is  situated  a  small 
pear-shaped  bag,  the  gall  bladder,  which  is  also  furnished  with  a 
duct,  called  the  crystic  duct,  which  unites  with  the  duct  from  the 
liver,  and  forms  the  common  biliary  duct. 

89.  What  is  the  composition  of  the  brain  f 

The  brain  is  composed  of  two  substances,  namely,  of  a  grey- 
coloured  pulp,  and  of  a  white  fibrous  texture.  The  grey  pulp  is  the 
glandular  or  active  substance,  and  is  made  up,  like  other  glands,  of 
minute  points  or  cavities,  from  which  proceed  the  finest  conducting 
tubes.  These  tubes,  intertwining  and  uniting  in  bundles  within  the 
brain,  are  called  the  cerebral  fibres,  and  they  constitute  the  white 
substance  occupying,  for  the  most  part,  the  central  and  under  portions 
of  the  brain.  The  grey  substance  lies  chiefly  on  and  near  the  surface, 
and  also  in  the  neighbourhood  of  those  cavities  within  the  brain,  which 
.ire  called  its  ventricles.  The  brain  is  separated  by  a  firm  membrane 
into  two  distinct  organs,  the  great  brain  and  the  small  brain.  The 
great  brain  is  situated  in  the  front  and  upper  part  of  the  skull,  and 
its  surface  is  marked  by  depressions  and  elevations  which,  resem 
bling  the  folds  of  a  garment,  are  called  its  convolutions.  The  small 
Drain  lies  underneath  at  the  back  of  the  skull  ;  its  surface  is  formed 
bv  close  layers  of  the  grey  substance,  presenting  a  laminated  appear 
ance.  Four  united  roots  or  stems  of  the  fibrous  substance,  two  from 
each  brain,  with  distinct  portions  of  the  grey  or  glandular  substance 
at  jugular  intervals  interspersed,  constitute  the  spinal  cord.  Nerves 
juisis  01  in  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  and  are  distributed  to  every 
organ  of  the  body. 

2* 


34  THE    REASON    WHY 


"  Far  as  creation's  ample  range  extends, 

The  scale  of  sensual,  mental  powers  ascends." — POPK. 


90.  The  functions  of  the  great  and  small  brain  appear  to  be  regulated  by  a  system 
of  mutual  dependence  and  co-operation.  During  wakefulness  the  great  brain,  aided 
by  the  influence  of  the  small  brain,  and  also  by  that  of  the  spinal  cord,  conducts 
and  regulates  the  conscious  movements  of  the  body.  But  during  sleep,  when  the 
great  brain  relaxes  the  reins  of  government,  and  p-ives  them  over  to  the  small 
brain,  this  organ,  being  left  to  its  own  laws,  directs,  through  its  own  fibres  and 
those  of  the  spinal  cord,  the  movements  of  the  heart,  lungs,  and  other  internal 
organs,  acting  at  the  same  time  on  the  muscles ;  and  while  the  small  brain  flows 
into  all  these,  there  results  a  plenary  equilibrium  of  the  body,  and  a  general 
co-operation  of  all  its  parts  for  the  mutual  support  of  each  other,  and  for  the 
preservation  of  the  whole. 

91.  Why  is  it  that  although  the  brain  and  the  spinal  cord  are 
so  intimately  connected,  yet  the  brain  is  not  affected  by  the  violent 
movements  which  the  spine  is  constantly  making  ? 

The  evil  is  partly  obviated  by  the  elastic  and  partly  by  the  non- 
elastic  properties  of  the  matter  interposed  between  the  several 
layers  of  compact  bone.  By  means  of  the  elastic  property  of  this 
matter,  the  head  rides  upon  the  summit  of  the  column  as  upon  a 
pliant  spring,  while  the  canal  of  the  spinal  cord  remains  secure  and 
uninvaded.  By  means  of  the  soft  and  pulpy  portion  of  this  matter, 
the  vibrations  excited  in  the  compact  bone  are  absorbed  point  by 
point  as  they  are  produced  ;  as  many  layers  of  this  soft  and  pulpy 
substance,  so  many  points  of  absorption  of  the  tremors  excited  in 
the  compact  bone,  so  many  barriers  against  the  possibility  of  the 
transmission  of  a  shock  to  the  delicate  nervous  substance. 

92.  Why  mo,y   the  form    of  the   skull    be    sometimes    changed 
without  injuring  the  brain  ? 

Because  the  peculiar  softness  of  the  cerebral  mass  enables  it  to 
undergo  those  changes  of  its  envelope  without  inconvenience 
The  brain,  in  proportion  to  its  softness,  will  suffer  percussions  am 
pressures  with  less  danger  ;  and,  on  this  account,  new-born  children 
whose  bones  are  soft  and  moveable,  may  have  their  head.' 
compressed,  and  even  deformed,  without  any  bad  effect. 

93.  Among  some  of  the  savage  tribes  a  low  brow  is  regarded  as  a  beauty ;  wd  *?• 
secure  this,  the  heads  of  infants  are  subject*-!  to  pressure  from  plates  fixed  ou  the 
top  of  the  head,  by  which  means,  the  crown  of  the  head  becomes  periectiy  uo^ 
while  the  back  portion  of  it  protrudes  extensively. 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  35 


But  of  this  frame  the  bearing  and  the  ties, 

The  strong  connexions,  nice  dependencies, 

Gradations  just,  has  thy  pervading-  soul  looked  through!" — POPE. 


94.   Why  are  the  gums  admirably  fitted  to  receive  tlve  teeth  ? 

Because  they  not  only  serve  as  firm  elastic  cushions  whereby 
they  rapidly  diffuse  the  force,  and  powerfully  support  the  teeth 
when  forcibly  employed,  but  by  the  vascular  connection  between 
them,  in  part  supply  them  with  nourishment. 

95.  By  the  manner  in  which  teeth  are  implanted  in  the  sockets,  they  are  afforded 
an  extensive  surface  of  support.    The  force  is  not  concentrated  at  the  point,  as  lu 
the  case  of  a  nail  thrust  into  a  board ;  but  is  uniformly  diffused  over  the  whole 

7  surface  of  the  fang,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 

— ^r^rra.  /""-^"Tf'la  /irTi^  annexed  engraving,  where  the  fangs  of 

ll     ,!'/>$»'       !  '  ;!  ''If  |  j'ij  I|B  the  middle  tooth  press  on  a  surface,  a  a  «, 

.  •v.-.i1*^  vM8raL~=«=-  equal  to  four  times  that  of  the  crown, 
6  ;  so  that  supposing  the  pressure  on  the 
crown  to  be  equai  to  four  pounds,  being 
extended  over  the  surface  of  the  fangs, 
it  is  reduced  to  one  pound  on  any  given 
jioint  of  the  root,  and  with  a  similar  force 
upon  the  sockets. 

96.  Why  are  trie  teeth  of  infants  hidden  within  the  gumsl 

Because  the  presence  of  teeth  would  not  only  be  useless,  but 
would  interrupt  the  process  of  sucking,  by  which  means  the  infant 
is  for  some  time  nourished,  and  which  act  can  be  performed  more 
efficiently,  and  with  greater  ease  and  comfort  to  the  nurse,  whilst 
the  inside  of  the  mouth  and  edges  of  the  gums  are  smooth  and  soft. 

97.  What  renders  it  more  probable  that  this  is  the  effect  of  design  is,  that  tho 
teeth  are  imperfect  while  all  the  other  parts  of  the  mouth  are  perfect.  The  lips  are 
perfect ;  the  tongue  is  perfect;  the  cheeks,  the  jaws,  the  palate,  the  pharynx,  tho 
larynx,  are  all  perfect ;  the  teeth  alone  are  not  so.  All  these  parts  are  called  into 
use  from  the  beginning. 

98.  Why  do  new  teeth  sometimes  make  their  appearance  at  an 
advanced  age  ? 

In  such  cases  the  jaw  was  too  small  to  contain  the  full 
number  of  the  second  set  of  teeth  at  the  ordinary  period  of  their 
renewal ;  some  of  the  teeth,  therefore,  remain  in  the  jaw,  which 
when  others  drop  out  make  their  appearance. 


36 


TIIE    REASON   WHY: 


"  From  an  eye  of  tenderness, 
Let  heavenly  pity  fall." — YOUNG. 


99.  IVhy  have  tears  a  globular  form  ? 

Because  the  superfluous  fluid  secreted  by  the  eye,  of  which  fluid 
tears  are  composed,  is  discharged  through  a  hole  in  the  bone,  of 
about  the  circumference  of  a  goose  quill,  in  these  the  tears  become 
moulded  to  this  form. 

100.  What  is  the  form  of  the  stomach  ? 

The  stomach  has  the  shape  of  the  pouch  of  a  bag-pipe,  lies  across 
the  body ;  and  the  passage  by  which  the  food  leaves  it  is  some 
what  higher  in  the  body  than  the  orifice  by  which  the  food  enters  ; 
so  that  it  is  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscular  coat  of  the 
stomach,  that  the  contents  having  undergone  the  application  of 
the  gastric  juice,  are  gradually  pressed  out. 

101.  Why  is  the  free  action  of  the  pores  of 
the  skin  essential  to  the  health  of  the  body  ? 

Because  they  act  as  a  species  of  pipes  through 
which  the  expended  refuse  matter  is  conveyed 
from  the  body.  These  tubes  open  through  the 
cuticle  or  outer  skin,  and  descend  into  the  fine 
or  underneath  skin,  and  then  form  themselves 
into  a  coil  as  seen  in  the  drawing.  These  tubes 
are  hollow,  like  a  pipe-stem,  and  their  inner 
surface  consists  of  wonderfully  minute  capillaries 
filled  with  impure  venous  blood.  The  capillaries 
of  these  tubes  through  the  whole  skin  of  the 
body  are  thus  constantly  exhaling  the  noxious 
and  decayed  particles  of  the  body.  It  is  calcu 
lated  that  about  three  or  four  pounds  of  waste 
matter  pass  off  through  the  skin  every  twenty- 
four  hours. 

102.  Why  is  watered  milk  the  most  suitable  food  for  the 
nourishment  of  the  infant? 

Because  this  aliment  has  a  close  analogy  to  blood,  and  the 
greatest  amount  of  nutrition  is  therefore  afforded  in  an  agreeable 
form,  and  by  an  easy  method,  whereas  any  other  mode  of  supplying 


NATURAL   IIISTOlir.  37 


•  Man  marks  not  thee,  marks  not  the  mighty  hand 
That,  ever  busy,  wheels  the  silent  spheres; 
Works  in  the  secret  deep." — THOMSON. 


the  same  amount  and  quality  of  food  would  overtax  the  powers 
and  functions  of  the  infant. 

103.  If  a  small  drop  of  milk  be  submitted  to  the  microscope  it  will  be  found  to 
manifest  nearly  the  same  appearances  as  a  drop  of  blood  will  present.  A  multitude 
of  minute  pearly  sphericles  with  the  most  perfect  outline,  reflecting  light  brilliantly 
from  their  centre,  and  varying  in  magnitude  from  the  12,500th  to  the  3,000th  part 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  even  larger  as  seen  floating  in  the  fluid.  The  general 
magnitude  and  number  of  these  globules  vary  much,  not  only  in  the  case  of  one 
species  of  animal  compared  with  another,  but  with  different  individuals  ol  the  same 
species,  and  even  with  the  same  individual  under  different  circumstances.  The 
constituent  upon  which  the  nutritive  properties  of  milk  mainly  depends  is  butter  ; 
in  this  respect  woman's  milk  is  found  to  be  by  far  the  richest,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  following  comparative  results  : — 

Woman.  Cow.  Goat.  Ass. 

Butter  8-97     2-68    4-56    1-29 

Sugar  of  Milk    1-20    5-G8    9-12    6-29 

Cheesy  Matter   1-93    8-95     4'38    1'95 

Water  ...  ..    87-90     ..    ..    82'69    ..    ..    81-94    ..    ..    90-47 


100-00  100-00  100-00  100-00 

104.   IVhy  is  it  better  for  mankind  that  the  action  of  the  l.,\^ 
organs  of  the  body  are  hidden  from  sight  ? 

Because  were  we  sensible  of  the  organic  motions — di'i  ve 
when  the  heart  beats,  the  lungs  play,  and  the  stortv,'j  fVp2sts, 
the  consciousness  could  not  promote,  but  might  dj'j'Aiib  the  due 
and  orderly  course  of  these  processes. 

105.  We  do  not  know  when  the  heart  dilates  to  receive  the  ^  i>i  cuirent,  nor  when 
it  contracts  to  propel  it  with  renewed  impetus  through  the  fjj  r CMa  ;  nor  when  the 
blood  rushes  to  the  lungs  to  give  out  its  useless  and  noxiom  y  j<.'/.04 ;  nor  when  the 
air  rushes  to  the  blood  to  take  up  those  particles,  to  reriv.c  '-hex*  by  others,  and 
thus  to  purify  and  renovate  the  vital  fluid.  Many  pro-^Sjf"  rf  this  kind  are  con 
tinually  going  on  within  us  during  every  moment  of  rjr  e'f's'^ence,  but  we  are  no 
more  conscious  of  them  than  we  are  of  the  motion  of  i.p.e  Folds  in  the  blade  of  grass 
on  which  we  tread.  On  the  contrary,  when  an  M.tjtpal  object  produces  in  u 
sentient  nerve  that  change  of  state  which  we  denot  j  jy  the  words  "  an  impression  ;" 
when  the  sentient  nerve  transmits  this  impress '.ca  to  the  brain  ;  when  the  brain 
is  thereby  brought  into  the  state  of  perception  ,f  Aii  animal  life  is  in  active  operation, 
and  percepient  or  conscious  existence  takr ,  p\ace. 


3S  THE   REASON   WHY 


;  My  pul^e  as  yours  doth  temperately  keep  time, 
And  makes  as  healthful  music." — SHAKSPERK. 


100.  W7t,y  may  the  organic  life  exist  after  the  animal  life  has 
perished  ? 

Because  the  animal  life  is  extinguished  when  sensation  is 
abolished,  and  voluntary  motion  can  be  performed  no  more. 
But  disease  may  abolish  sensation  and  destroy  the  power  of 
voluntary  motion,  while  circulation,  respiration,  secretion,  excre 
tion,  and  the  entire  circle  of  organic  functions  continue  to  be 
performed. 

107.  The  disease  known  as  catalepsy  affords  the  most  striking  illustration  jf  this 
extraordinary  condition  of  the  system  ;  and  the  following  is  a  case  in  point :  A 
young  lady  was  seized  with  a  fit  of  catalepsy  while  employed  in  netting  ;  she  was 
in  the  act  of  passing  the  needle  through  the  mesh  :  in  that  position  she  became  im 
movably  rigid,  exhibiting  in  a  pleasing  form  a  figure  of  death — like  ?leep,  beyond 
the  power  of  art  to  imitate,  or  the  imagination  to  conceive.  Her  forehead  was 
serene,  her  features  perfectly  composed.  The  paleness  of  her  colour,  and  her 
breathing,  which  at  a  distance  was  scarcely  perceptible,  operated  in  rendering  the 
similitude  to  marble  more  exact  and  striking.  The  position  of  her  fingers,  hands, 
and  arms,  was  altered  with  difficulty,  but  preserved  every  form  of  flexure  they 
acquired ;  nor  were  the  muscles  of  the  neck  exempted  from  this  law,  her  head 
maintaining  every  situation  in  which  the  hand  could  place  it,  as  firmly  as  her 
limbs. 

108.  Why  is  it  erroneous  to  suppose  that  deep-seated  vital  organs 
have  what  is  ordinarily  termed  " feeling  ?" 

Because  (taking  the  heart  as  an  illustration)  the  pulsation  of  the 
heart  may  be  felt  through  the  side,  and  those  arteries  which  lie 
near  the  surface  may  be  felt  to  beat.  After  violent  exertion  or 
excitement,  too,  the  pulsation  of  the  heart  may  be  felt,  and  in 
imagination  at  least,  if  not  in  reality,  heard  without  the  application 
of  the  hand  to  any  part  of  the  body.  But  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  is  never  felt,  and  the  heart  itself  gives  us  no  internal  evidence 
of  its  existence. 

109.  A  well-authenticated  case  of  the  insensibility  of  the  heart  to  feeling  of  any 
kind,  is  furnished  by  the  celebrated  Harvey,  the  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the 

»lood,  as  follows  : — A  young  nobleman  had  a  portion  of  the  parietes  of  the  side 
destroyed  by  an  abscess,  consequent  upon  a  fall.  The  wound  healed,  but  without 
the  restoration  of  the  parts  which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  abscess,  and  the  hear*. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  39 


With  milky  blood  the  heart  is  overflown, 

Is  soothed  and  sweetened  by  the  social  sense." — TUOMSO*. 


and  lungs  could  be  touched  through  the  opening  without  imparting  any  feeling 
that  they  were  touched.  Harvey  says  :  "  When  I  paid  my  respects  to  this  young 
nobleman,  he  made  no  concealment,  but  exposed  the  left  side  of  his  breast,  when  I 
saw  a  cavity  into  which  I  could  introduce  my  fingers  and  thumb.  Astonished  with 
the  novelty,  I  again  and  again  explored  the  wound,  and  first  marvelling  at  the 
extraordinary  nature  of  the  cure,  I  set  about  the  examination  of  the  heart.  Taking 
it  in  one  hand  and  placing  the  finger  of  the  other  on  the  pulse  of  the  wrist,  I  satis 
fied  myself  that  it  was  indeed  the  heart  which  I  grasped.  I  then  brought  him  to 
the  King  (Charles  I.),  that  he  might  behold  and  touch  so  extraordinary  a  thing,  and 
that  he  might  perceive,  as  I  did,  that  unless  when  we  touched  the  outer  skin,  or 
when  he  saw  our  fingers  in  the  cavity,  this  young  nobleman  knew  not  that  we 
touched  the  heart." 

110.  WTiy  do  the  interior  organs  of  the  body  keep  in  the  placet 
assigned  them,  when  the  body  itself  is  moved  about  in  every 
direction. 

Because  the  various  parts  are  tied  or  fastened  to  the  body  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  them  slipping  from  their  places. 

111.  The  heart  is  placed  between  two  soft  lobes  of  the  lungs,  and  is  tied  to  the  me 
diastinum  and  to  the  pericardium,  which  pericardium  is  not  only  itself  a  very  strong 
membrane,  but  adheres  firmly  to  the  duplicature  of  the  mediastinum,  and,  by  its 
point,  to  the  middle  tendon  of  the  diaphragm.  The  heart  is  also  sustained  in  its 
place  by  the  great  blood-vessels  which  issue  from  it.  The  lungs  are  tied  to  the 
st'.'tiium  by  the  mediastinum  before,  to  the  vertebra?  by  the  pleura  behind.  It  seems 
indeed  to  be  the  very  use  of  the  mediastinum  (which  is  a  membrane  that  goes 
'straight  through  the  middle  of  the  thorax,  from  the  breast  to  the  back)  to  keep  thf 
contents  of  the  thorax  in  their  places ;  in  particular  to  hinder  one  lobe  of  the  lungs 
from  incommoding  another,  or  the  parts  of  the  lungs  from  pressing  upon  each  other 
when  we  lie  on  the  side.  The  liver  is  fastened  in  the  body  by  two  ligaments  ;  the 
first,  which  is  large  and  strong,  comes  from  the  covering  of  the  diaphragm,  and 
penetrates  the  substance  of  the  liver  ;  the  second  is  the  umbilical  vein,  which,  after 
liirth,  degenerates  into  a  ligament.  The  first,  which  is  the  principal,  fixes  the  liver 
in  its  situation  whilst  the  body  holds  a  n  erect  post-are ;  the  second  prevents  it  from 
pressing  on  the  diaphragm  when  we  he  down ;  and  both  together  sling  or  suspend 
the  liver  when  we  lie  upon  our  backs,  so  thnt  it  may  not  compress  or  obstruct  the 
vein  to  which  belongs  the  important  office  of  returning  the  blood  from  the  body  to 
the  heart. 


40  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  What  a  piece  of  work  is  a  man  ! 
How  noble  in  reason  !  how  infinite  in  faculties. 
In  form  and  moving,  how  express  and  admirable ! 
In  action,  how  like  an  angel !  in  apprehension,  how  like  a  God.' 


CHAPTER    IV. 

THE   SENSES — SEEING,   HEARING,   SMELLING,   TASTING,   AND   FEELING. 

112.  Why  are  the  senses  of  seeing,  hear  ing,  tasting,  and  smelling 
placed  in  the  head  ? 

Because  the  head  is  the  most  elevated  part  of  the  body,  and  is 
capable  of  moving  independently  of  the  rest  of  the  fabric.  Thus  the 
organs  of  sense,  which  put  us  in  connection  with  the  external  world, 
which  render  us  susceptible  of  pleasure,  and  which  give  us  notice 
of  the  approach  of  objects  capable  of  exciting  pain,  are  placed  where 
external  bodies  may  be  brought  most  conveniently  and  completely 
in  contact  with  them,  and  where  alone  they  can  be  efficient  as  the 
sentinels  of  the  system. 

113.  How  do  we  know  that  the  powers  of  seeing  depend  more 
upon  the  mechanical  exercise  of  the  eye  itself  than  upon  mental 
capacity  ? 

Because  many  persons  in  certain  departments  of  life,  are  capable 
of  discerning  objects  more  readily  in  connection  with  their  pursuits 
than  better  informed  or  more  intellectual  persons  who  have  seldom 
or  never  seen  those  objects  ;  thus  a  sailor  will  descry  the  various 
phenomena  of  the  elements,  which  are  invisible  to  the  learned  and 
refined  passenger  ;  and  the  ploughman  will  point  out  certain  objects 
in  a  landscape  to  the  wondering  student  who  has  just  escaped  from 
his  labours.  On  the  other  hand,  persons  who  are  much  accustomed 
to  reading  are  enabled  to  take  in,  as  it  were,  the  contents  of  a  wholo 
page  of  a  book,  while  another  person  less  accustomed  to  reading  has 
only  been  able  to  master  two  or  three  lines. 

114.  IVTiy  is  it  erroneous  to  suppose  that  on  entering  a,  room  wt 
tee  all  the  objects  in  it  at  once  ? 

Because  this  apparently  simultaneous  view  arises  from  the  motions 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  41 


And  ia  the  silence  of  his  calm  abode, 

In  nature's  works  he  worshipped  nature's  God." 

MATILDA  HOUSTON. 


of  the  eye,  which  admit  of  great  objects  being  successively  presented 
to  it  with  a  rapidity  of  which  we  are  unconscious. 

115.  It  is  easy  to  show  that  if  the  eye  were  without  motion,  steadily  fixed  in  the 
socket,  the  vision  would  be  quickly  lost ;  that  objects  of  the  greatest  brilliancy 
•would  be  obscurely  seen,  or  disappear.  For  example,  let  us  fix  the  eye  on  one 
point — a  thing  somewhat  difficult  to  do,  owing  to  the  very  disposition  in  the  eye  to 
be  constantly  moving ;  but  suppose  that  by  repeated  attempts  we  have  at  length 
acquired  the  power  of  directing  the  eye  steadily  ou  an  object,  when  we  have  done 
so,  we  shall  find  that  the  whole  scene  becomes  more  and  more  obscure,  and  finally 
vanishes.  Let  us  fix  the  eye  on  the  corner  of  the  frame  of  the  principal  picture  in 
the  room  ;  at  first  everything  around  the  room  will  be  distinct ;  in  a  very  little 
time  the  impression  will  become  weaker,  objects  will  appear  dim,  and  then  the  eye 
will  have  an  almost  uncontrollable  desire  to  wander ;  if  this  be  resisted,  the  im 
pressions  of  the  figures  in  the  picture  will  first  fade  ;  for  a  time  we  shall  see  the 
gilded  frame  alone  ;  but  this  also  will  become  faint.  When  we  have  thus  ascer 
tained  the  fact,  if  we  change  the  direction  of  the  eye  but  ever  so  little,  the  whole 
scene  will  at  once  again  be  perfect  to  us. 

116.  Why  is  incessant  motion  of  the  eye  essential  to  the  continued 
exercise  of  the  organ  ? 

Because  when  the  eye  is  fixed  upon  a  point,  the  lights,  shades, 
and  colours  of  objects  continuing  to  strike  upon  the  same  part  of  the 
retina,  the  nerve  is  exhausted  ;  but  when  the  eye  shifts  there  is  a 
new  exercise  of  the  nerve  ;  the  part  of  the  retina  that  was  opposed 
to  the  lights  is  now  opposed  to  the  shades,  and  what  was  opposed  to 
different  colours  is  now  opposed  to  other  colours,  and  the  variation 
in  the  exciting  cause  produces  a  renewed  sensation. 

117.  Why  do  we  know  that  the  ideas  we  obtain  of  the  size,  shape, 
and  distance  of  objects  depend  mainly  upon  the  education  of  the 
sight? 

Because  optical  illusions,  however  nearly  they  resemble  realities 
when  they  first  meet  the  eye,  are  satisfactorily  proved  to  have  no 
existence,  by  the  attentive  and  correct  use  of  that  very  organ 
which  gave  rise  to  the  error. 

118.  Dr.  Cheselden,  by  a  surgical  operation,  procured  sight  to  a  very  intelligent 
person  who  was  born  blind,  and  he  observed  the  manner  in  which  this  sense  was 
developed  in  the  young  man.  "  When  he  saw  the  light  for  the  first  time,  he  knew 
BO  little  how  to  judge  of  distances,  that  Li  believed  the  objects  which  he  s%w 


42  THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  lie  tliat  is  ^iddy  thinks  the  world  turns  round." — SIIAKSPEBB. 


touched  his  eyes,  as  the  things  which  he  felt  touched  his  skin."  During  the  time 
of  his  blindness  he  had  received  such  an  imperfect  idea  of  colours  which,  by  a  very 
strong  light,  he  was  then  ahle  to  distinguish,  that  a  sufficient  impression  had  not 
been  left  by  which  he  could  again  recognise  them.  Indeed,  when  he  saw  them,  he 
said  the  colours  he  then  saw  were  not  the  same  as  those  he  had  seen  formerly ;  he 
did  not  know  the  form  of  any  object;  nor  could  he  distinguish  one  object  from 
another,  however  different  their  s5/e  and  configuration  might  be  ;  when  objects 
were  shown  te  him  which  he  had  known  formerly  by  the  touch,  he  looked 
at  them  with  attention,  and  observed  them  carefully  in  order  to  recognise 
them  again  ;  but  as  he  had  too  many  objects  to  retain  at  once,  he  forgot  the  greater 
part  of  them,  and  when  he  first  learnt,  as  he  said,  to  see  and  to  know  objects,  he 
forgot  a  thousand  for  one  that  he  recollected. 

It  was  two  months  before  he  discovered  that  pictures  represented  solid  bodies  ; 
until  that  time  he  had  considered  them  as  planes  and  surfaces  differently  coloured 
and  diversified  by  a  variety  of  shades  ;  but  when  he  began  to  conceive  that  these 
pictures  represented  solid  bodies,  in  touching  the  canvas  of  the  picture  with  his 
hand  he  expected  to  find  something  solid  upon  it,  and  he  was  much  astonished  when, 
upon  touching  those  parts  which  seemed  round  and  unequal,  he  found  them  flat 
and  smooth  like  the  rest. 

He  could  not  support  much  light  at  first,  and  every  object  seemed  very  large  to 
him ;  but  after  he  had  seen  larger  things,  he  considered  the  first  smaller  ; 
he  thought  there  was  nothing  beyond  the  limits  of  his  sight.  The  same  operation 
was  performed  on  the  other  eye  about  a  year  after  the  first,  and  it  succeeded 
equally  well.  At  first  he  saw  objects  with  his  second  eye  much  larger  than  with 
the  other,  but  not  so  large,  however,  as  he  had  seen  them  with  his  first  eye  ;  and 
when  he  looked  at  the  same  object  with  both  eyes  at  once,  he  said  that  it  appeared 
twice  as  large  as  with  the  first  eye. 

119.  Why  is  sight  essential  to  the  firmness  of  most  of  our 
attitudes  ? 

Because  we  judge  of  the  position  of  our  bcdies  by  other  bodies 
vrhich  we  see  around  us.  Thus,  when  we  are  deprived  of  this  means 
of  judging  of  our  equilibrium,  as  when  we  are  on  a  house, 
or  any  elevated  place  where  we  are  only  surrounded  by  the  air,  our 
standing  becomes  uncertain,  and  it  sometimes  happens  that  we 
feel  giddy,  and  cannot  stand  at  alL 

120.  The  utility  of  sight  is  still  greater  if  the  base  of  support  is  very  narrow  ;  a 
rope  dancer  could  not  stand  erect  if  he  were  not  constantly  directed  by  the  eye  as 
to  the  position  necessary  to  be  preserved,  in  order  that  the  perpendicular  drawn 
from  his  centre  of  gravity  may  fall  upon  the  base  of  support.  This  connection 
between  sight  and  attitude  is  furthor  demonstrated  by  the  uncertain  postuies  which 
bund  pei'sans  assume. 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  43 


"  Time  wasted  is  existence,  used  is  life, 
And  bare  existence,  man,  to  lire  ordained, 
Wrings  and  oppresses  with  enormous  weight." — YOUNQ. 


121.   Why  does  the  pupil  of  the  eye  contract  and  dilate  ? 

Because  when  it  is  necessary  to  exclude  excess  of  light,  the  pupil 
through  which  the  light  enters  may  gradually  or  wholly  exclude  it 
by  contraction  ;  and  when  a  large  amount  of  light  is  desired,  the 
dilation  of  the  pupil  in  a  similar  degree  ensures  the  admission  of 
a  greater  number  of  rays. 

122.  The  chamber  of  the  eye  is  a  camera-obscura,  which,  when  the  light  is  too 
small,  can  enlarge  its  opening;  when  too  strong,  can  again  contract  it;  and  that 
without  any  other  assistance  than  of  its  own  exquisite  machinery. 

123.  Why  is  a  person  unable  to  discern  objects  when  passing  from 
a  strongly-illuminated  room  into  one  comparatively  dark,  or  into 
the  open  air  at  night  ? 

Because  the  contraction  of  the  pupil,  which  was  adapted  to  the 
strong  light  to  which  it  had  been  previously  exposed,  admits  so  little 
light  to  the  retina  that  no  sensation  is  produced.  The  pupil,  how 
ever,  after  a  while  dilates,  and,  admitting  more  light,  objects  are 
perceived  which  were  before  invisible. 

124.  Why    does  the  eye  of  a  person  suffer  inconvenience  and 
pain  in  passing  from  a  dark  room,  into  a  light  one  ? 

^  Because,  while  the  observer  remains  in  the  dark  or  less  illu 
minated  room,  the  pupil  is  dilated  to  that  degree  so  as  to  admit 
into  the  eye  as  great  a  quantity  of  light  as  the  structure  of  the  organ 
allows  of.  "When  he  passes  suddenly  into  the  strongly-illuminated 
room  the  flood  of  light  arriving  through  the  widely  dilated  pupil 
acts  with  such  violence  upon  the  retina  as  to  produce  pain,  which 
necessarily  calls  for  the  relief  and  protection  of  the  organ.  The 
iris,  then,  by  an  action  peculiar  to  it,  contracts  the  dimension  of  the 
pupil  so  as  to  admit  proportionally  less  light,  and  the  eye  is 
gradually  opened  with  impunity. 

125.  Why  is  the  pupil  of  the  eye  so  called? 

Because  if  we  look  into  the  eye  of  another  we  shall  perceive  a 
little  image  of  our  own  face,  like  a  very  minute  child  or  pupil — 
hence  the  name. 


44  THE   REASON   WHY  . 


There  are  more  tilings  in  heaven  and  earth,  Horatio, 
Thau  are  dreamed  of  in  your  philosophy." — SUAKSPERE. 


126.   Why  are  some  persons  short-sighted? 

Because  the  rays  of  light  are  brought  to  a  focus  before  they  reach 

the  retina,  and  consequently 
produce  an  indistinct  picture 
on  the  retina.  This  will  be 
more  clearly  illustrated  by  the 
accompanying  engraving. 

127.  The  remote  causes  of  this  defect  of  the  eye  may  be  various ;  as  too  great 
density  of  the  humours — too  great  a  convexity  either  of  the  cornea  or  the  lens — and 
from  the  space  between  the  retina  and  the  lens  being  too  short.  Where  it  depends 
on  too  much  convexity,  as  age  approaches,  it  may  disappear ;  but  where  too  great 
density  is  the  cause,  age  is  apt  rather  to  aggravate  than  to  relieve  it.  For  while  in 
the  young  the  convexity  both  of  the  cornea  and  the  lens  is  greater  than  in  advanced 
life,  the  less  density  of  the  humours  counterbalances  it ;  and  again  as  life  advances, 
the  more  scanty  supply  of  humours,  along  with  the  diminishing  convexity,  are 
neutralised  by  the  increasing  density  ;  therefore,  if  these  keep  pace  with  each  other 
the  eye  remains  to  a  very  protracted  period  of  life  without  the  necessity  for 
Artificial  assistance. 

128.  W]iy  do  the  eyes  sometimes  become  "bloodshot?" 

Because  when  the  eye  is  healthy  its  blood-vessels  are  so  small 
that  only  the  colourless  portion  of  the  blood  finds  its  way  through 
them.  But  when  the  eye  is  inflamed,  the  coats  of  these  vessels  be 
coming  weaker,  they  are  readily  distended  by  the  impulse  of  the 
blood  against  them  ;  they  then  become  enlarged,  the  red  globules 
find  their  way  into  them,  and  they  are  rendered  red  and  visible  to 
the  naked  eye. 

129.  Why,  when  the  sight  is  impaired  in  old  age,  are  persons 
compelled  to  wear  spectacles,  or  to  hold  objects  at  a  distance  from 
them  in  order  to  distinguish  them  perfectly  ? 

Because  the  diminished  refractive  power  of  the  organ  is  accom 
panied  by  a  divergence  of  the  rays  of  light  which  tends  to  confuse 
and  obscure  the  sight.  By  holding  objects  at  a  distance  the 
divergence  becomes  diminished,  and  the  same  effect  is  produced 
by  convex  glasses. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  45 


1  'Tis  greatly  wise  to  walk  with  our  best  hours, 
And  ask  them  what  report  they've  borne  to  heaven."— YOUNG. 


130.  It  is  customary  with  opticians  to  place  in  the  hands  of  a  person  requiring 
spectacles  a  book  or  newspaper,  and  by  the  distance  at  which  the  one  or  the  othei 
is  instantly  held  from  the  sight,  the  optician  is  enabled  to  judge  of  the  degree  of  tho 
defect  of  the  vision  and  the  kind  of  glass  that  is  required. 

131.  Why  does  the  eye  lose  its  lustre  in  old  age  and  sickness  ? 
Because  the  lustre  of  the  healthy  eye  is  produced  by  the  action  of 

the  muscles  of  the  eye-ball  maintaining  it  firmly  in  its  place,  pres 
sing  it  against  the  fatty  cushion  on  which  it  rests,  and  giving  to  it 
that  tension  necessary  to  render  the  corner  prominent,  clear,  and 
full.  In  old  age  and  sickness  the  muscles  of  the  eye  partake  of  the 
general  debility  of  the  system,  and  its  functions  are  thus  deranged. 

132.  Wliy  do  some  persons  squint  ? 

Strabismus,  or  squinting,  is  caused  by  one  or  more  of  the  muscles 
of  the  eye  being  shortened  or  elongated  ;  and  by  the  derangement 
of  their  action  the  pupil  is  consequently  carried  out  of  the  proper 
axis  of  vision. 

133.  This  defect  is  cured  by  a  very  simple  operation.  The  shortened  or  elongated 
muscle  is  cut  down  by  a  skilful  operator.  The  false  position  of  the  pupil  is  imme 
diately  rectified  by  the  division  of  the  disordered  muscle  that  induced  obliquity  by  its 
irregular  action.  The  divided  muscle  in  healing  shortens  or  lengthens,  and  during 
the  healing  process  suits  itself  to  the  exigencies  of  the  case,  and  in  a  short  time 
re-unites. 

134.  Wliy  when  we  look  for  some  time  at  a  white  spot  upon  a 
black  ground,  and  aftenvards  direct  the  eye  to  a  white  ground,  do  we 
perceive  a  black  spot  ? 

Because  the  retina  of  the  eye  has  become  insensible  in  the  point 
which  was  formerly  fatigued  by  the  white  light.  In  the  same 
manner,  after  the  retina  has  been  some  time  without  acting  in  one 
of  its  points,  whilst  the  others  have  acted,  the  point  which  has  been 
in  repose  becomes  of  an  extreme  sensibility,  and  on  this  account 
objects  seem  as  if  they  were  spotted. 

135.  In  this  manner  it  is  explained  why,  after  having  looked  for  a  long  time  at 
a  red  spot,  white  bodies  appear  as  if  spotted  with  green  ;  in  this  case  the  retina  has 
become  insensible  to  the  red  rays,  and  we  know  that  a  ray  of  white  light,  from 
which  the  red  is  substracted,  produces  the  sensation  of  green. 


40  THE    REASON  WIIY  : 


Each  friend  by  fate  snatched  from  us,  is  a  plame 
Plucked  from  the  wing  of  vain  humanity." — YOUNO. 


136.  Why  does  a  flash  of  light  from  the  eye  generally  follow 
from  a  violent  blow  on  that  organ  or  the  surrounding  parts  ? 

Because  light,  or  some  degree  or  modification  of  light,  is  the  only 
impression  of  which  the  eye  is  susceptible  ;  and  therefore  every 
effect  upon  the  parts  of  the  eye  which  are  essential  to  vision  only 
must  be  a  sensation  of  light. 

137.  A  violent  blow  on  the  eye  appears  as  an  instantaneous  flash  of  light,  and  this 
effect  is  produced,  not  only  when  the  eye  itself  is  struck,  but  when  there  is  a  violent 
concussion  of  the  head,  which  we  may  suppose  to  be  transmissable  to  the  surround 
ing  parts  of  the  eye,  and  so  to  the  eyeball  itself.  If  a  person  walking  hastily  and 
heedlessly  in  the  dark  strikes  his  forehead  violently  against  an  object  of  resist 
ance,  then  instantly,  and  before  any  pain  is  felt  in  the  part  which  has  received  the 
stroke,  a  flash  of  light  is  seen  by  both  eyes,  brighter  in  proportion  as  the  stroke  is 
more  violent.  Thus,  any  sudden  agitation  produced  in  the  exterior  coats  of  the 
eyeball,  from  whatever  source  it  may  arise,  always  tells  upon  the  sentient  part  of 
the  eye  as  light,  and  never  as  pain  or  any  other  sensation. 

138.  Why  cannot  a  person  distinguish  minute  objects  in  the 
water  with  his  head  likewise  immersed  in  the  fluid  ? 

Because,  although  there  is  sufficient  difference  between  the  den 
sity  of  the  humours  of  the  eye  and  that  of  the  air,  to  bring  the  rays 
transmitted  by  the  latter  to  a  focus  on  the  retina,  there  is  not  suffi 
cient  difference  between  the  density  of  these  humours  and  that  of 
water,  to  do  the  same  by  rays  transmitted  through  this  fluid,  so  that 
such  rays  are  not  brought  to  a  focus  sufficiently  soon.  Hence  divers 
in  some  places  are  in  the  habit,  when  they  descend  into  the  water, 
of  using  extremely  convex  glasses,  in  shape  almost  like  the  lens  of 
fishes,  and  turning  their  eyes  by  this  means,  as  it  were,  into  those 
of  an  aquatic  animal. 

139.  Why  are  the  eyes  furnished  with  lashes? 

Because  they  serve  to  ward  off  insects,  and  to  protect  the  eye 
from  particles  floating  in  the  air.  When  the  eyelashes  are  humid, 
the  little  drops  of  moisture  decompose  the  rays  of  light,  and,  even 
independently  of  humidity,  they  also  partly  resolve  the  light  passing 
into  the  interior  of  the  eye. 

140.  When  the  eyelids  are  placed  near  each  other,  and  the  eyelashes  admit  only  a 
quantity  of  light  to  pass  at  a  time,  the  eyelashes,  by  separating  into  pencils 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  47 


1  And  as  he  spoke  a  big  round  drop 

F"l'  bounding;  on  his  ample  sleeve ; 
A  witness  mat  he  could  not  stop, 
A  witness  that  we  all  believe." — BLOOMFIELD. 

x^./VVN/N>"*yvy^vV>y>^NXVVV'x/\/\x\x\/VV\rV>^N/N/VX/vx/N^ 

the  light  whir.h  penetrates  the  eye,  make  bodies  in  ignition  appear  during  the 
night  as  if  they  were  surrounded  with  luminous  rays.  This  appearance  does  not 
take  place  if  the  eyelashes  are  inverted,  or  merely  turned  in  another  direction. 
The  vision  of  those  persons  who  have  lost  their  eyelashes  is  always  more  or  lesa 
imperfect. 

141.  Why  are  the  eyes  protected  by  eyebrows  ? 

The  eyebrows  have  many  uses.  The  projection  which  they  form 
protects  the  eye  against  external  violence  ;  the  hairs  on  account  of 
their  oblique  direction,  and  the  oily  matter  with  which  they  are 
covered,  prevent  the  perspiration  from  flowing  towards  or  irritating 
the  surface  of  that  organ  :  they  direct  it  towards  the  temple  and  the 
root  of  the  nose.  The  colour  and  the  number  of  hairs  of  the  eye 
brows  have  an  influence  upon  their  use.  They  have  generally  some 
relation  to  the  climate.  The  inhabitants  of  hot  countries  have  them 
very  thick  and  black  ;  the  inhabitants  of  cold  countries  may  have 
them  thick,  but  they  are  rarely  black.  The  eyebrows  protect  th* 
eyes  from  excess  of  light,  particularly  when  it  comes  from  above  , 
this  effect  is  rendered  still  more  conspicuous  by  the  knitting  of  the 
brows. 

142.  Qf  what  use  are  eyelids? 

They  cover  the  eye  during  sleep,  and  preserve  it  from  the 
contact  of  extraneous  particles  flying  about  in  the  air,  which  might 
injure  it ;  they  defend  it  from  sudden  shocks,  by  their  almost 
instantaneous  closure,  and  by  their  habitual  motions,  which  aro 
renewed  at  nearly  equal  intervals,  they  preserve  it  from  the  effects 
of  long-continued  contact  of  the  air.  The  eyelids  also  moderate 
the  force  of  a  too  brilliant  light,  and  prevent  the  passage  of  any 
more  of  this  fluid  than  what  is  necessary  for  vision  without  offend 
ing  the  eye.  On  the  contrary,  when  the  light  is  feeble,  we  separate 
the  eyelids  to  a,  considerable  distance,  in  order  to  admit  the  passage 
cf  as  great  a  quantity  of  light  as  possible  to  the  interior  of  the  eye. 

143.  Why   is    the    involuntary    closing   of    the     eyelid    more 
advantageous  ik-zn  if  it  depended  upon  our  wiU? 

Because,  if  the  eiowi£  of  the  eyelid  depended  upon  voluntary 


48  THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  Give  every  man  thine  ears,  but  few  thy  voice  ; 
Take  each  man's  censure,  but  reserve  thy  judgment."— SHAKSPERB. 


power,  we  might  have  gone  to  sleep  forgetting  to  have  closed  it, 
thereby  exposing  the  eye  to  considerable  danger.  But  under  the 
involuntary  arrangement  the  lid  is  made  to  fall  over  the  eye  as 
drowsiness  comes  on,  is  kept  there  during  sleep,  and  in  the 
morning,  owing  to  the  delicacy  of  its  structure,  it  transmits  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  light  to  the  eye  to  arouse  sensibility,  and  we 
awake. 

144.  How  is  the  process  of  Juaring  conducted  ? 

The  folds  of  the  outward  ear  conduct  to  its  entrance,  and  into 
an  outer  passage,  which,  after  running  inward  a  short  distance,  is 
closed  by  a  membrane  called  the  drum. 
Behind  this  membrane  is  an  inner  passage, 
which  terminates  in  the  throat,  which  is 
called  the  trumpet.  Warm  air  from  the 
lungs  therefore  supplies  the  inner  passage, 
and  the  surrounding  atmosphere  fills  the 
outer  passage.  When  the  modification  of 
the  atmosphere  by  which  sounds  are  pro 
duced,  flow  into  the  outer  passage,  the  drum 
of  the  ear  is  put  upon  the  stretch,  more  or  less,  according  to  the  force 
or  loudness  of  the  sound,  as  shown  by  the  trick  of  calling  loudly 
under  the  pretence  of  whispering  in  the  ear.  Behind  the  drum,  in 
the  hard  bone,  or  the  rock-like  wall  of  the  inner  passage,  are  two 
small  openings  termed  mastoid,  which  communicate  with  the  inner 
cavities  or  chambers  of  the  ear.  There  are  two  other  openings 
closed  by  a  thin  transparent  membrane,  and  the  chambers  excavated, 
as  it  were,  in  the  rock-like  bone,  are,  with  the  mastoid  cells, 
filled  with  fluid.  Within  these  chambers  (called  the  labyrinth  and 
semi-circular  canals)  the  nerve  of  hearing  spreads  out  between  the 
folds  of  a  most  delicate  membrane,  receiving  the  impressions 
conveyed  by  the  atmosphere  or  other  conducting  media,  an<J 
communicating  them  to  the  sense  of  hearing  in  the  brain. 

145.  Why  do  infants  hear  indistinctly? 

Because  the  bones  of  their  cars  are  soft  and  cartilaginous  ;  and  of 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  4£ 


"  Life  speeds  away 
From  point  to  point,  though  seeming  to  stand  still." — Yocxa. 


course,  the  tremuiation  excited  in  them  by  the  motion  of  the  air 
are  comparatively  weak.  Young  children  accordingly  are  extremely 
fond  of  noise.  It  arouses  their  attention,  and  conveys  to  them  the 
agreeable  sensation  of  mind  ;  but  feeble  sounds  are  not  perceived, 
which  gives  infants,  like  deaf  persons,  the  appearance  of  dullness 
or  want  of  intelligence, 

146,  Why  are  we  compelled  to  use  both  ears  in,  order  to 
determine  the  direction  of  a  sound  ? 

Because  every  sound  conies  more  directly  to  one  ear  than  to 
the  other,  and  it  is  only  by  comparing  the  intensity  of  the  two 
impressions,  that  we  are  capable  of  deciding  whence  the  sound 
proceeds, 

147.  If  we  close  one  ear  perfectly,  and  cause  a  slight  noise  to  be  made  in  a 
dark  place  at  a  short  distance,  it  would  often  be  impossible  to  determine  its  direc 
tion  ;  in  using  both  ears  this  could  be  determined.  If  a  person  wakes  in  the  night  and 
hears  a  sound  but  cannot  tell  from  what  quarter  it  proceeds,  he  will  turn  his  face 
full  in  the  direction  from  which  he  supposes  the  sound  to  come,  thus  availing 
himself  of  both  ears ;  having  determined  this,  and  wishing  to  distinguish  the  sound, 
he  will  incline  one  ear  only  for  this  purpose. 

148.  Wliy  do  persons  who  are  partially  deaf  place  their  hand 
behind  the  ear,  in  order  to  hear  more  distinctly  ? 

Because  the  hand  thus  placed  acts  upon  the  same  principle  as  the 
sounding  board  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  sound  reverberates  against  it, 
and  penetrates  the  ear,  instead  of  passing  by,  which  it  would  do,  if 
no  barrier  existed. 

149.  Why  will  a  person  who  is  partially  deaf  frequently  hear 
more  distinctly  when  addressed  in  a  moderate  tone,  than  when  called 
to  in  a  loud  voice  ? 

Because  in  many  cases  of  defective  hearing,  the  impaired  organs 
are  so  extremely  sensitive,  that  a  loud  voice  acts  like  a  concussion 
upon  them,  and  thus  defeats  its  own  end  ;  whereas  a  moderate 
tone  adapts  itself  to  the  limited  power  of  hearing,  and  thus 
makes  a  suitable  impression. 


60  THE   REASON   WHY: 


A  {rood  nose  is  requisite,  also,  to  smell  out  work  for  the  other  senses." 

SHAKSPERZ. 


150.  Why   may    the   ticking  of    a    watch   fo  heard   distinctly 
when  it  is  placed  against  the  teeth  ? 

Because  sound  is  capable  of  being  produced  by  the  "vibration  of 
solid  bodies  without  the  intervention  of  the  atmosphere,  and  in  this 
instance  the  sound  is  conveyed  from  the  teeth,  through  the  bones  of 
the  face  and  the  head,  to  the  auditory  nerves. 

151.  How  is  the  sense  of  smell  produced? 

When  we  put  a  flower  or  a  sweet  scent  of  any  kind  to  our  nos« 
and  enjoy  the  smell  of  it,  it  is  because  the  nerves  lining  our  nostrils 
are  touched  by  very  small  particles  which  fly  off  from  the  flower  or 
scent.  In  the  same  way  unpleasant  smells  are  detected  by 
minute  noxious  particles  floating  in  the  air,  coming  in  contact 
>riih  the  nostrils. 

152.  Why  do  persons  "sniff  up  the  air"  when  any  agreeable 
odours  are  floating  in  it  ? 

Because  when  the  nostrils  are  thus  exerted,  they  act  as  a  species 
of  syphon,  and  withdraw  a  larger  amount  of  the  odour  from  the 
atmosphere  than  they  otherwise  would,  so  that  the  action  of  sniffing 
increases  the  pleasurable  sense  thus  imparted. 

153.  Why  does  closing  the  mouth  increase  the  sense  of  smell  ? 

Because  under  that  condition  the  respiratory  current  is  drawn 
exclusively  through  the  nose.  On  the  contrary,  when  we  wish  to 
avoid  a  disagreeable  odour,  the  end  may  be  effected  by  keeping  the 
mouth  open,  through  which  respiration  will  chiefly  take  place, 
and  very  little  through  the  medium  of  the  nose. 

154.  Why  are  the  organs  of  smelling  and  of  tasting  situated 
to  near  to  each  other  ? 

Because  the  vicinity  of  these  two  senses  forms  a  double  guard  tn 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  f>  I 


1  And  next  in  orclor  sad,  Old  Age  we  found  : 

Tlis  beard  all  hoar,  his  eyes  hollow  and  biiiid  : 
"With  drooping  cheer  still  poring  on  the  ground." — SACKVILLB. 


the  selection  of  food.     Were  they  placed  in  distant  parts  of  the 
body,  they  could  not  so  readily  give  mutual   aid. 

155.  Wlmj  is  taste  the  least  deteriorated  by  age  of  any  of  the 
senses  ? 

Because  so  long  as  the  body  exists  it  must  necessarily  be  fed, 
and  the  organ  by  which  this  process  is  primarily  accomplished  is 
mercifully  spared,  while  other  senses  less  essential  are  subjected 
to  decay. 

156.  Why  is  touch  considered  to  be  the  m^t  important  of  all 
the 


Because  by  touch  we  are  enabled  to  know  with  greater  certainty 
the  properties  of  bodies  ;  our  hearing,  seeing,  and  smelling  may 
frequently  deceive  us  and  lead  us  into  error,  touch  seldom  does 
this,  and  in  all  cases  of  doubt  when  the  other  senses  are  engaged, 
touch  steps  in  as  umpire,  and  resolves  the  difficulty. 

157.  The  extreme  sensibility  of  the  touch  of  the  blind  is  well  known.  A  blind 
person  deciphering  a  book  by  the  aid  of  touch  wi1.!,  in  general,  read  with  fc\ver 
mistakes  than  are  made  by  persons  of  ordinary  intelligence  when  perusing  a  book 
by  the  aid  of  their  sight.  There  arc  many  remarkable  instances  of  the  intensity 
with  which  one  portion  of  the  senses  may  be  exercised,  and  especially  that  of 
touch,  when  others  arc  wanting  ;  ordinary  faculties  taking  upon  themselves 
extraordinary  functions,  and  thus  in  a  great  measure  compensating  for  the 
deprivation  which  it  has  pleased  Providence  to  inflict.  A  case  in  point  is  furnished 
by  the  following  narrative : — 

James  Mitchell,  the  son  of  a  respectable  parish  minister  in  the  County  of  Elgin, 
was  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind  from  birth.  As  he  grew  up,  he  discovered  a  most 
extraordinary  acuteness  in  the  senses  of  touch  and  smell,  being  very  soon  able  by 
these  to  distinguish  strangers  from  the  members  of  his  own  family,  and  any  little 
article  that  was  appropriated  to  himself  from  what  belonged  to  others.  In  child 
hood  the  most  noticeable  circumstance  relating  to  him  was  an  eager  desLc  to  strike 
upon  his  fore-teeth  ;  this  he  would  do  for  hours.  When  a  stranger  arrived,  his 
smell  would  invariably  inform  him  of  the  circumstance,  and  direct  him  to  the  place 
where  the  stranger  was,  whom  he  proceeded  to  survey  by  the  sense  of  touch.  In  the 
remote  situation  where  he  resided  male  visitors  were  the  most  frequent,  and 
therefore  the  first  thing  he  generally  did  was  to  examine  •whether  or  not  the  strangei 
wore  boots  ;  if  such  were  the  case  he  would  immediately  quit  the  stranger  and 
proceed  to  the  stable,  accurately  examining  the  whip,  and  handling  the  horse  with 
great  care  and  the  utmost  seeming  attention.  It  has  occasionally  happened  that 


62  THE   REASON   WHT  I 


"  One  touch  of  Nature  makes  the  whole  world  kin." — SHAKSPEIIE. 


visitors  have  arrived  in  a  carnage,  and  on  such  occasions  he  has  never  failed  to  go 
to  the  place  where  the  carriage  stood,  examining  the  whole  of  it  with  much  anxiety, 
and  trying  innumerable  times  the  elasticity  of  the  springs.  When  he  felt  hungry 
he  would  approach  his  mother  or  sister,  touching  them  in  an  expressive  manner,  and 
rointing  to  the  apartment  where  the  victuals  were  usually  kept.  If  a  dry  pair  of 
stockings  were  wanting,  he  would  point  to  his  legs,  and,  in  short,  intimate  his 
various  wishes  in  a  similar  way.  On  one  occasion  a  pair  of  shoes  was  brought, 
and  on  attempting  to  put  them  on  he  found  they  were  too  small.  His  mother  took 
them  and  locked  them  in  a  closet.  Soon  after  a  thought  seemed  to  strike  him  ;  he 
contrived  to  obtain  the  key  of  the  closet,  opened  the  door,  took  out  the  shoes,  and 
put  them  on  the  feet  of  a  yonrg  lad  who  attended  him,  and  whom  they  fitted 
"exactly.  When  he  happened  i->  be  sick  and  feverish  he  would  point  to  his  head,  or 
take  his  mother's  hand  and  y:lace  it  opposite  his  heart.  He  never  attempted  to 
express  his  feelings  by  utterance,  except  when  angry,  when  he  would  utter  a  loud 
bellow.  Satisfaction  or  complacency  he  expressed  by  patting  the  person  or  object 
which  had  excited  that  feeling.  His  smell  being  wonderfully  acute  he  would  be 
frequently  offended  through  that  sense  when  other  persons  near  to  him  smelt 
nothing  unpleasant.  His  elder  sister  seemed  to  have  a  much  greater  ascendancy 
over  him  than  any  other  person.  Touching  his  head  with  her  hand  was  the 
principal  method  she  employed  in  signifying  her  wishes  to  him  respecting  his 
conduct.  This  she  did  with  various  degrees  of  force  and  in  different  manners,  and 
he  seemed  readily  to  understand  the  intimation  intended  to  be  conveyed. 

158.  Why  is  the  sense  of  touch  more  vivid  when  the  circulation 
is  warm  and  active  than  when  it  is  chilled  and  stagnant? 

Because  the  papillse  are' dependent  for  their  life  and  action  on  a 
constant  supply  of  blood,  when,  therefore,  the  nerves  receive  an 
abundant  supply  of  the  stimulating  fluid  the  sense  of  touch  becomes 
proportionately  acute  ;  and  when  this  supply  is  stinted  or  withheld, 
sensation  may  in  some  cases  become  so  blunted,  as  to  allow  wounds 
to  be  inflicted  without  exciting  pain. 

159.  Why  is  the  sense  of  touch  sometimes  untrustworthy  f 

Because  it  has  its  delusions  like  the  other  senses,  so  much  so, 
that  a  body  may  be  imagined  to  be  felt,  and  yet  have  no  real 
existence. 

160.  The  following  illusion  of  an  extraordinary  kind,  which  cannot  he  corrected 
e»  en  by  the  sight,  proves  that  the  senses  alone  unaided  by  the  reasoning  powers 
are  not  to  be  trusted ;  cannot  indeed  be  believed  on  all  occasions  :— If  we  place  on 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


53 


"  The  universal  cause 

Acts  to  one  end  but  acts  by  •v  .irious  law?  ; 
Connects  each  being,  greatest  with  the  least ; 
Made  beast  in  aid  of  man,  and  man  of  beast." — POPK. 


a  table,  or  on  the  palm  of  the  hand,  a  marble,  or  any  other  small  globular  body,  and 
crossing  it  alternately  with  the  fore  and  middle  fingers 
so  disposed  that  the  marble  shall  touch  only  the  outer 
edges  or  surfaces  of  the  two  fingers,  the  person  will 
believe  that  he  touches  two  marbles,  although  he  knows 
that  only  one  is  present.  The  explanation  of  this 
illusion  is  as  follows  :  The  mind  refers,  involuntarily, 
all  sensations  experienced  at  different  parts  of  the  body 
to  the  position  in  which  such  parts  are  usually  placed. 
Now  the  cros.-ing  of  the  fingers  does  not  prevent  us 
feeling  either  of  them  in  contact  with  the  marble,  as  if 
they  were  placed  naturally  side  by  side.  But  in  the 
habitual  position  of  the  fingers  side  by  side,  it  is  impos 
sible  that  the  outer  edges  of  any  two  fingers  can  be  at 
the  same  time  placed  in  sufficient  contact  with  a  single 
marble  or  other  similar  rounded  body  ;  and  thus  when  such  contact  actually 
takes  place  simultaneously,  by  the  contrivance  of  crossing  the  fingers,  then 
the  mind  involuntarily  believes  the  thing  to  be  impossible,  takes  it  for  granted 
that  two  marbles,  not  one,  must  be  present  ;  and  hence  arises  the  sensation  and 
perception  of  two  distinct  bodies. 


CHAPTER  V. 

CLASSIFICATION   OJb1  THE  VARIOUS  ANIMALS. 

161.  WJiy  are  animals  arranged  by  naturalists  into  classes, 
orders,  sub-orders,  families,  &c.  ? 

Classification  prevents  the  necessity  of  frequently  and  fully 
describing  any  animal  referri>l  to  ;  it  ensures  correct  identity  in 
the  observations  and  communications  of  naturalists.  It  also 
answers  as  a  sort  of  dictionary  wherein,  from  the  properties  of 
things,  we  proceed  to  discover  their  names,  thus  forming  the 
inverse  of  ordinary  dictionaries,  where  the  names  direct  us  to  the 
properties.  But  no  arrangement  of  animals  can  be  perfect ;  first, 
because  we  may  not  be  acquainted  with  all  the  species  ;  secondly, 
because  of  some  of  the  species  we  may  know  very  little  ;  and, 
thirdly,  because  of  those  which  we  knifcw  best,  the  greater  part  are 
known  as  more  or  less  domesticated ;  and,  further,  because  the 


64  •  THE   REASON   WHY  I 


To  Him,  no  high,  no  low,  no  great,  no  small; 

He  fills,  He  bounds,  connects,  and  equals  all." — POPI 


great  masters  of  natural  history,  differing  in  their  views,  produce 
systems  of  classification  more  or  less  varying  from  each  other. 
Notwithstanding  these  difficulties,  an  approach  to  uniformity  and 
identity  may  be  obtained,  eminently  useful  where  the  objects  to  be 
distinguished  are  remarkably  numerous. 

162.  What  are  the  significations  of  the  terms  class,  order, 
sub-order,  family,  genus,  species,  &c.  ? 

A  class  is  a  primary  or  leading  division,  a  number  of  being?* 
having  one  or  more  features  in  common.  An  order  is  a  sub-division 
of  a  class.  A  sub-order  is  a  further  division  of  an  order.  Family 
is  a  still  further  division,  and  is  used  synonymously  with  tribe. 
Genus  and  species  are  more  limited  and  definite  than  family  or 
tribe  ;  they  refer  to  groups  of  individuals  that  agree  in  all,  or 
nearly  all  essentials.  Genera  is  the  plural  of  genus. 

163.  Species  means  tribes  of  animals  or  plants  which  have  descended  from  the  same 
stock,  or  from  parentages  precisely  similar  and  in  no  way  distinguished  from  each 
other. 

The  ancients  applied  the  term  genus  to  any  collective  number  of  organised  beings 
which  are  akin  to  each  other,  or  the  offspring  cf  the  same  ancestors.  The  idea  of 
genus  was  then  simple  and  definite,  and  just  what  we  attach  to  the  terms  kind  or 
kindred.  By  degrees,  the  meaning  of  genus  was  extended,  and  it  was  made  to  com 
prehend  all  such  creatures  as  by  reason  of  some  real  or  fancied  resemblance  in  their 
form  or  nature  were  conjectured  to  have  belonged  to  one  original  stock.  Such 
groups  were  the  "dog-kind,"  the  "cat-kind,"  the  "ox-kind."  For  the  more 
developed  state  of  science,  these  clauses  were  too  comprehensive,  and  included 
tribes  so  remote  from  each  other  that  they  could  not  be  regarded  as  the  progeny  of 
the  same  original  tribes.  The  term  species  was  therefore  adopted,  and  made  to 
express  nearly  what  genus  now  does. 

1G4.  According  to  the  LINN  JEAN  SYSTEM,  the  whole  animal 
kingdom  is  ranged  under  the  following  six  CLASSES  : — 

I.  MAMMALIA  (from  the  Latin  mammae,  the  breasts  or  teats  of  a 
female). — Animals  with  warm  red  blood,  viviparous,  and  suckling 
their  young. 

II.  AVES  (birds). — Animals  with  warm  red  blood,  oviparous, 
an^  feathered. 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


To  me  be  Nature's  volume  broad  displar'd ; 

And  to  peruse  its  all-instructing  page, 

Or,  haply  catching  inspiration  thence, 

Some  easy  passage,  raptur'd  to  translate."—  THOXSON. 

III.  AMPHIBIA  (from  two  Greek  words,  meaning  both  and  life), — 
Animals  with    cold  red  blood,  breathing  by  lungs,   capable  of 
subsisting  for  a  time  either  on  laud  or  in  water. 

IV.  PISCES  (fishes). — Animals  with  cold  red  blood,  breathing  by 
gills,  and  not  by  lungs. 

V.  INSECTA  (insects).— Animals  with  cold  white  blood,  having 
antennae   (feelers)   on  the   head,   and  articulated  (jointed)   horny 
organs  of  motion. 

VI.  VERMES  (worms). — Animals  with  cold  white  blood,  without 
antennas,  for  the  most  part  with  tentacula  (having  simple  thread 
like    organs    for  protrusion  around  their  mouths),  and  without 
articulated  organs  of  motion. 

165.  According  to  the  SYSTEM  of  CUVIER,  a  leading  grand  divi 
sion  prevails  over  the  whole  of  these,  viz.,  the  vertebrated,  from  the 
invertebrated  (from  the  Latin  verto,  to  turn) ;  the  first  being  dis 
tinguished  by  having  a  back-bone,  the  latter  by  the  absence  of  this 
organ.  The  vertebrated  animals  are  divided  into  four  da&Si^ 
thus : — 

DIVISION   L VERTEBRATA. 

Class  L  Mammalia.     II.  Aves.     III.  Eeptilia.     IV.  Pisces 

DIVISION   II. —  MOLLUSCA. 

[This  is  the  commencement  of  the  invertebrated  division,  but  the 
fcerm  is  disused.] 

Class  1.  Cephcdapoda.  II.  Oteropoda.  III.  Gasteropoda. 
IV.  Acephala.  V.  Bradiiopoda.  VI.  Cirrhopoda. 

DIVISION   III. — ARTICULATA. 

Class  I.  Annelides.  II.  Crustacea.  III.  Aradinidet. 
IV.  Insect®. 

SUB-DIVISION   IV. — RADIATA. 

Class  I.  Echinodermata.  II.  EntozocL  III.  Acalepha 
IV.  Polypi.  V.  In/usoria. 


BG 


THE  REASON    WHY: 


When  with  a  Reaumur's  skill  thy  curious  mind 

Has  classed  the  inseei  tr.bes  of  human  kind, 

Each  with  its  busy  hum,  or  gilded  wing, 

Its  subtle  web- work,  or  its  venomed  sting."— ROGERS. 


166.  Why  is  the  term  invertebrated  unemployed? 
Because  it  is  merely  of  a  negative  character. 


[All  animals  may  be  referred  to  one  or  other  of  the  foregoing 
those  not  included  in  the  first  Division  are  all  invertebrated.] 


,  and 


SO  MUCH  O7  THE  CLASSIFICATION  AS  WILL  BE  GIYEN  IN  7BE  FOLLOWING  PAGES  IS 
A  COMBINATION  OF  TDK  SYSTEMS  OF  LlNN^US  AND  ClJVIER,  WITH  SVCH 
MODIFICATIONS  AS  ARE  NOW  GENERALLY  ADOPTED. 

DIVISION  I.— VERTEBRA    CLASS  I.— MAMMALIA. 

ORDER  I.— BIMANA. 

167.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  Bimana  ? 

It  is  derived  from  the  Latin  bis,  twice,  and  manus,  a  hand :  it 
means  two-handed. 

168.  Why  is  MAN  the  only  individual  included  in  this  order  ? 
Because  he  is  the  only  two-handed  animal.     This  fact  will  be 

further  enforced  by  reference  to 

ORDER  II.— QUADRUMANA. 

169.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  Quadrumana? 

It  is  derived  from  the  Latin  quadra,  four,  mam  s,  hand,  and 
means  four-handed. 

170.  Wliy  are  monkeys  described  as  four-handed  ? 

Because  those  of  their  extremities  which  are  apparently 
analogous  to  the  feet  of  man,  are 
provided  with  thumbs,  free  and  oppos- 
able  to  the  other  toes — the  toes  them 
selves  being  long  and  similar  to  the 
fingers  of  the  hand. 

In  consequence  of  this  peculiarity,  all 
the    species  of    the   order  exhibit    the 
utmost  facility   in   climbing  trees,  but 
cannot  sustain  themselves,   much   less 
walk,  in  an  erect  posture  without  considerable  difficulty. 


NATCJRAL   HISTORY. 


*'  With  monkey's  ingenuity, 
That  love  to  practise  what  they  see." — BUTLER. 


171.  In  audition  to  this  distinguishing  feature,  the  canine  teeth  of  monkeys  are 
longer  than  those  of  man ;  while  the  bones  of  the  pelvis  are  too  narrow  to 
continually  support  their  bodies  in  an  erect  position. 

Mr.  Partington  regards  it  as  incorrect  to  call  the  extremities  of  monkeys 
"  hands  ;  "  they  are.  he  says,  properly  paivs.  All  the  paws  consist  of  four  fingers 
and  a  thumb.  The  latter  member  is,  however,  very  small,  sometimes  without  a 
nail,  and  cannot,  in  all  the  species,  be  said  to  perform  the  functions  of  a  true 
thumb,  but  often  more  resembles  the  callous  pad  which  forms  a  point  of  resistance 
against  the  fingers  in  several  other  climbing  animals.  The  anterior  extremities  are 
long,  but  much  longer  in  some  of  the  species  than'  in  others  ;  tne  fingers  are  also 
long,  the  bones  of  some  of  the  phalanges  are  often  curved  towards  the  palms,  and 
the  muscular  power  in  grasping  and  pulling  is  much  greater  than,  from  the  size  of 
the  animal  or  of  the  parts,  one  would  be  led  to  suppose.  Similar  grasping  powers, 
in  proportion  to  their  size,  are,  however,  common  to  all  the  quadrumaua,  and  to  all 
climbing  animals. 

172.   What  is  the  difference  between  apes,  baboons,  and  monkeys? 

Apes  are  such  as  are  destitute  of  tails  ;  Baboons  have  muscular 
bodies,  elongated  muzzles,  and  their  tails  are  usually  short  : 

Monkeys  are  those  whose 
tails  are  in  genera]  long, 
some  of  them,  the  Sapagos, 

fit 


having  prehensile  tails,  which 
can  at  pleasure  be  twisted 
around  any  object,  and  there 
by,  in  many  instances,  answer 
the  purpose  of  an  additional 
hand. 

173.  Why  afe  monkeys 
divided  into  two  principal 
sub  genera,  "  the  monkeys  of 
the  old  world"  and  the 
11  monkeys  of  the  new  world  ?" 

Because  of  a  remarkable  and  uniform  difference  in  the  number 
of  their  teeth.  All  the  monkeys  of  the  old  world  have  the  same 
number  of  teeth  as  the  human  species  ;  but  the  monkeys  of 
America  have  four  cheek-teeth  more  than  the  other  monkeys — 
thirty-six  teeth  in  all — besides  some  minor  distinguishing  features. 

3* 


THE   REASON   WHY  : 


•'  Stand  by  there.    What  are  you?" 

"  My  lady's  ape,  that  imitated  all  her  fashions ;  falling  as  she  did,  arid  running 
she  same  course  of  folly." — NABBE. 


174.  Why  are  monkeys  confined  to  certain  geographical  limits? 

Because  their  chief  office  evidently  is  to  prevent  the  too  rapid 
increase  of  birds,  which  they  do  by  destroying  vast  numbers  of 
eggs  that  would  otherwise  be  brought  to  maturity  almost  by  the 
sun's  heat.  This  mission  the  monkeys  carry  out  so  perseveringly, 
that  they  are  perpetually  on  the  watch  to  rob  birds'  nests,  and 
when  they  want  appetite  or  inclination  to  devour  them,  they  will 
fling  them  on  the  ground.  We  therefore  find  that  monkeys  abound 
in  those  latitudes  where  birds  are  most  abundant. 

175.  Why   should  we  not  mistake  the  imitative  propensities  of 
monkeys  for  a  natural  love  of  mischief? 

Because  in  mimicking  the  actions  of  man  they  will  as  readily 
engage  in  useful  employment  as  in  wilful  sport.  And  during  the 
whole  time  they  are  so  engaged  their  countenances  assume  a 
reflective  and  serious  air. 

176.  It  is  said  that  the  Indians  sometimes  direct  their  imitative  propensity  to 
useful  purposes ;  for,  wishing  to  collect  the  cocoa-nuts  and  other  fruits  from  the 
trees  in  the  woods  frequented  hy  the  apes,  they  repair  to  their  places,  setting  the 
example  of  gathering  a  few  heaps  first  themselves,  and  then  withdrawing,  leave  the 
work  to  be  performed  by  the  animals  at  will.  These  creatures  seeing  a  heap  or  two 
commenced,  descend  with  the  certainty  of  carrying  on  the  business,  and  when  the 
produce  has  been  thus  rather  plentifully  collected,  the  Indians  approach  and  take 
away  the  harvest. 
> 

177.   Why  have  some  monkeys  tails  of  an  extraordinary  length  ? 

They  are  thus  enabled  to  suspend  themselves  from  the  branches 
of  one  tree  and  reach  food  from  another.  By  the  same  means  the 
young  of  the  animal  sit  securely  on  the  back  of  the  mother  by 
turning  their  tails  around  her's,  and  so  escape  from  the  pursuit  of 
their  enemies 

178.  A  sketch  is  here  given  of  the  Coaita,  or  Spider  Monkey.  The  tail  answers 
aU  the  purposes  of  a  hand,  and  the  animal  throws  itself  from  branch  to  branch  by 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


1  This  apish  and  unmannerly  approach, 
This  harness'd  mask,  and  unadvised  revel, 
This  unheard  saucincss  and  boyish  trooper, 
The  king  doth  smile  at." — S 


means  of  its  tail.  The  prehensible 
part  of  the  tail  is  covered  with  skin 
only,  forming  an  organ  of  touch 
as  discriminating  as  the  propel 
extremities. 

In  monkeys  the  pectoral  part  of 
the  body  is  by  far  the  most  mus 
cular  and  robust  in  its  form,  while 
the  ventral  and  sacral  parts  of  its 
trunk  are  attenuated,  so  much  so 
that  this  portion  appears,  in  some 
of  the  species,  as  if  it  were  nothing 
more  than  a  stalk  to  the  hind  legs ; 
at  all  events  it  is  never  such  as  to 
impede  their  motions  or  encumber 
them  by  its  weight.  Now  the 
young  monkey  so  applies  itself 
to  the  body  of  its  mother  that 
it  in  no  way  impedes  her  motions,  and  is,  in  fact,  the  least  possible  burden 
to  her  that  so  much  additional  weight  could  be.  The  shoulder  bones  are 
stout  and  long  for  her  size,  by  which  means  the  breadth  of  her  chest  is 
ample,  and  the  shoulder  joints  are  thrown  wide  apart.  The  fore  legs  of  the  young 
clasp  her  round  her  neck  and  hold  on  to  the  immoveable  part  of  the  shoulder, 
between  the  shoulder-bone  and  the  blade-bone,  so  that  their  points  of  adhesion  do 
not  interfere  with  any  of  the  moving  parts.  These  members  in  the  young  monkey 
are  so  long  that  it  can  reach  the  pectoral  mammoa  of  the  mother  without  weaken 
ing  its  own  hold  or  cramping  her  motions  ;  and  then  its  hind  legs  clasp  the  body  so 
far  forwards  that  they  leave  the  hinder  extremities  free  for  every  operation  of 
climbing.  Therefore,  a  female  monkey  loaded  with  a  young  one  has  very  nearly, 
if  not  altogether,  the  same  use  of  her  organs  as  though  she  were  without  any  load, 
because  the  young  one  adheres  by  its  own  exertions,  which  exertion  strengthens 
in  proportion  to  its  weight. 

179.  Wliy  is  a  particular  description  of  monkey*  called  the 
preacher  ? 

Because  it  is  common  for  one  of  these  creatures  to  ascend  a  lofty 
tree  while  a  congregation  of  others  of  the  tribe  assemble  in  the 
lower  branches  ;  the  monkey  who  is  elevated  above  the  rest  then 
sets  up  a  loud  and  shrill  howl,  which  may  be  heard  at  a  great  dis 
tance.  The  assembled  monkeys  afterwards  join  in  a  noisy  choru* 


Mycetes  Beelzebub. 


60  THE   REASON    WHY  : 


"All  these  are  ours ;  and  I  with  pleasure  see 
Man  strutting-  on  two  legs,  and  aping  me." — BKYDEN. 

180.  Why  are  lemurs    included   in    the  same  order   with  the 
monkey  tribes? 

Because  although  differing  from  the  monkeys  of  the  old  and 
new  worlds  in  their  teeth,  they  are  quadrumanouSj  having 
opposable  thumbs  on  the  fore  as  well  as  the  hind  paws. 

181.  Why  are  they  catted  lemurs? 

The  Latin  lemurs  means  sprites  that  walk  by  night  ;  and  these 
animals  were  so  named  by  Linnaeus,  because  of  their  nocturnal 
habits,  and  their  large  glaring  eyes.  They  wander  by  night,  and 
subsist  upon  fruit,  insects,  and  small  birds. 

182.  In  fhe  jungles  about    Tillicherry,    there  is  a  large   species  of   monkey 
frequently  tamed  by  the  natives,   and  at  a  village  a  short  distance  from  this 
celebrated  seaport  there  occurred  an  evidence  of   the  extreme   sagacity    of  this 
animal.    A  few  yards  from  the  house  of  the  person  to  whom  it  belonged,  a  thick 
pole,  at  least  thirty  feet  high,  had  been  fixed  into  the  earth,  round  which  was  an 
iron  ring,  and  to  this  was  attached  a  strong  chain  of  considerable  length,  fastened 
to  a  band  round  the  monkey's  body.    The  ring  being  loose,  it  slid  along  the  pole 
when  h  •  iscended  or  descended.     He  was  in  the  habit  of  taking  his  station  upon 
the  top  01'  the  bamboo,  where  he  perched  as  if  to  enjoy  the  beauties  of  the  prospect 
around  him.      The  crows,   which  in   India  are  very  abundant    and    singularly 
audacious,   taking  advantage  of  his  elevated  position,  had  been  in  the  habit  of 
robbing  him  of  his  food,  which  was  placed  every  morning  and  evening  at  the  foot 
of  the  pole.    To  this  he  had  vainly  expressed  his  dislike  by  chattering,  and  other 
indications  of  his  displeasure  equally  ineffectual ;  but  they  continued  their  depreda-. 
tions.    Finding  that  he  was  perfectly  unheeded,  he  adopted  a  plan  of  retribution  as 
effectual  as  it  was  ingenious. 

One  morning,  when  his  tormenters  had  been  particularly  troublesome,  he  appeared 
as  if  seriously  indisposed ;  he  closed  his  eyes,  drooped  his  head,  and  exhibited 
various  other  symptoms  of  severe  suffering.  No  sooner  were  his  ordinary  rations 
placed  at  the  foot  of  the  bamboo,  than  the  crow?,  watching  their  opportunity, 
descended  in  great  numbers,  and  according  to  their  usual  practice  began  to 
demolish  his  provisions.  The  monkey  now  began  to  slide  down  the  pole  by  slow 
degrees,  as  if  the  effort  were  painful  to  him,  and  as  if  so  overcome  by  indisposition 
that  his  remaining  strength  was  scarcely  equal  to  such  exertion.  When  he  reached 
the  ground  he  rolled  about  for  some  time,  seeming  in  great  agony,  until  he  found 
himself  close  to  the  vessel  which  contained  his  food,  but  which  the  crows  had  by 
this  time  well-nigh  devoured.  There  was  still,  however,  some  remaining,  which  a 
solita-y  bird,  emboldened  by  the  apparent  indisposition  of  the  monkey,  advanced  to 
Bebe.  The  wily  creature  was  at  this  time  lying  in  a  state  of  apparent  insensibility 
at  the  foot  of  the  pole  and  close  to  the  pan.  The  moment  the  crow  stretched  ou> 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  61 


Far  different  there  from  all  that  charmed  before, 
The  various  terrors  of  that  horrid  shore  ; 
Those  matted  woods  where  birds  forget  to  sing, 
But  silent  bats  in  drowsy  clusters  cling." — GOLDSMITH. 

its  head,  and  ere  it  could  secure  a  mouthful  of  the  interdicted  food,  the  watchful 
avenger  seized  the  depredator  by  the  neck  with  the  rapidity  of  thought,  and 
secured  it  from  doing  further  mischief.  He  now  oegan  to  chatter  and  grin  with 
every  expression  of  gratified  triumph,  while  the  crows  flew  around,  cawing  in 
boisterous  chime,  as  if  deprecating  the  chastisement  about  to  be  inflicted  upon  their 
captive  companion.  The  monkey  continued  for  a  while  to  chatter  and  grin  in 
triumphant  mockery  of  their  distress  ;  he  then  deliberately  placed  the  captive  crow 
between  his  knees  and  began  to  pluck  it  with  the  most  humorous  gravity.  When 
he  had  completely  stripped  it,  except  the  large  feathers  in  the  pinions  and  tail,  he 
flung  it  into  the  air  as  high  as  his  strength  would  permit,  and,  after  flapping  its 
wings  for  a  few  moments,  it  fell  on  the  ground  with  a  stunning  «hock.  The  other 
crows,  which  had  been  fortunate  enough  to  escape  a  similar  castigation,  now 
surrounded  it,  and  immediately  pecked  it  to  death. 

The  animal  had  no  sooner  seen  this  ample  retribution  dealt  to  the  purloiner  of 
his  repast,  thap  he  ascended  the  bamboo  to  enjoy  a  quiet  repose.  The  next  time 
his  food  was  brought,  not  a  single  crow  approached  it. 

ORDER  III.— CA11NARIA. 

183.  Why    is    the    third    division    of    the    Mammalia    called 
Carnaria  ? 

The  name  implies  lovers  of  flesh,  and  is  therefore  employed  to 
denote  those  classes  of  animals  which  are  flesh  eaters.  The  term 
carnaria  is  applied  to  the  whole  of  a  great  ORDER,  which  is  again 
divided  into  sub-orders :  1.  Cheiroptera ;  2.  Insectivora  ;  3. 
Carnivora. 

Sub-order  I. — Cheiroptera. 

184.  Why  is  the  flrst  sui-order  of  Carnaria  called  Cheiroptera  ? 

Because  the 
wings  of  the  spe 
cies  composing  it, 
as  well  as  serving 
iP\  tlie  Purposes  of 
flight  are  to  some 
extent  capable  of 
being  used  as 

nands.     The  term  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words  meaning  wing 

and  hand,  and  signifies  wing-handed. 


THE   REASON   WHY: 


Oil  a  bat's  whir/  will  1  fty, 
After  sun-set  inenih  !  " 


185.  Why   are  bats    not  classed  with  birds,  although  they  are 
capable  of  flight  ? 

Chiefly  because  they  suckle,  their  young,  which  habit  refers  them 
to  the  class  mammalia.  They  breed  at  the  hottest  time  of  the  year ; 
and  the  young,  which  are  usually  two  in  number,  are  naked  and 
helpless  at  their  birth,  capable  only  of  clinging  to  the  teats  of  their 
mother,  which  they  do  with  the  greatest  firmness.  There  is  no  nest 
in  which  the  mother  can  leave  her  young  ones  ;  so  she  bears  them 
about  attached  to  her  body,  until  they  are  capable  of  flight. 

186.  Why  is  the  wing  of  the  bat  furnished  with  a  hook  ? 
Without  this  hook,  the  bat  would  be  the  most  helpless  of  all 

animals.  It  can  neither  run  upon  its  feet,  and  can  raise  itself  from 
the  ground  only  with  great  difficulty.  The  hook  takes  the  form  of 
a  bent  claw,  and  is  situated  at  an  angle  of  the  wing,  by  which 
means  the  bat  attaches  itself  to  the  sides  of  rocks,  caves,  and  build 
ings,  laying  hold  of  crevices,  chinks,  and  protuberances.  It  hooks 
itself  by  this  claw,  remains  suspended,  and  takes  its  flight  from  this 
position :  which  operations  compensate  for  the  decrepitude  of  its 
legs  and  feet. 

187.  Why  do  bats  conceal  themselves  in  old  ruins,  fissures  of 
walls,  <#c.,  by  day  ? 

Because,  being  organised  for  nocturnal  flight,  the  impressions  of 
light  are  too  powerlul  for  them.  Their  wings  being  formed  of  a 
highly  sensitive  membrane,  they  seek  sheltered  places,  where 
neither  light  nor  currents  of  air  can  take  effect  upon  them. 

188.  Why    have    bafs    wings    numerous    nerves    distributed 
upon   them  ? 

Their  sight  being  defective,  is  compensated  by  the  highly- 
sensitive  nature  of  their  wings,  ears,  nostrils,  &c.,  which  vary  in 
different  species.  Their  wings  are  so  susceptible  of  impressions, 
that  bats,  even  after  their  eyes  have  been  destroyed,  can  fly  about 
amidst  numerous  objects,  and  avoid  them  all  with  the  greatest 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  63 


"  In  chinks  and  holes 
Ten  thousand  seek  an  unmolested  end 
As  instinct  prompts,  self-buried  ere  they  die." — CowrER. 


precision.  The  extreme  sensibility  to  light  and  touch  is  shown  by 
bats  even  in  their  dormant  state.  Be  their  torpidity  ever  so 
great,  they  shrink  from  the  touch,  even  before  actual  contact,  and 
appear  disturbed  at  the  presence  of  a  candle,  or  any  other  light. 

189.   IVliy  do  bats  fly  by  night  ? 

Because  they  feed  upon  night-flying  insects.  Hence  they  take 
the  place  by  night  which  the  swallow  occupies  by  day.  Some  of 
the  species  occasionally  fly  by  day,  but  that  habit  is  by  no  means 
common,  and  is  confined  to  some  of  the  foreign  bats,  which  are 
vegetable  feeders. 

1 90.  Bats  issue  forth  as  darkness  begins,  and  by  their  active  flight  capture  sucli 
insects  as  are  then  on  the  wing — gnats,  mosquitoes,  moths,  beetles,  &c.,  and  their 
wide  gape  with  its  formidable  teeth  is  an  excellent  trap  for  the  capture  of  such 
prey.  The  service  which  they  render  to  vegetation,  by  the  destruction  of  insects 
which  in  the  larva  state  prey  upon  it,  is  very  considerable,  even  in  temperate 
climates ;  and  some  of  the  hot  countries  in  which  they  swarm  by  myriads  could  not 
but  for  them  be  inhabited.  In  humid  places  on  the  margins  of  tropical  forests, 
mosquitoes  are  trouble.-ome  enough  as  it  is  ;  but  if  the  bats  did  not  thin  their 
numbers  they  would  be  utterly  unbearable.  Those  species,  too,  which  frequent  the 
towns  and  settlements  are  useful  in  other  respects.  Most  of  the  race  are  miscel 
laneous  in  their  feeding,  and  not  very  delicate  in  their  taste.  They  devour 
indiscriminately  all  animal  substances,  whether  raw  or  dressed,  and  whether  in  a 
recent  or  putrid  state. 

191.  Why  do  bats  hybernate  during  the  winter  months  ? 
Because,  as  they  feed  chiefly  upon  insects,  their  supply  of  food 

fails  as  the  winter  approaches,  and  their  office  in  the  great  scheme 
ot  nature  can  no  longer  be  fulfilled.  Therefore,  as  the  time  when, 
for  the  same  causes,  the  swallow  departs  for  a  sunnier  clime  where 
insect  food  may  be  found,  the  bat  retires  into  its  hiding  places,  and 
sleeps  away  tlie  montlis  of  winter. 

SUB-ORDER  II.— INSECTIVORA. 

192.  Wliy     is      the     second     sub-order    of     Carnaria     called 
Tnsectivora  ? 

Because  they  live  principally,  if  not  wholly,  upon  insects.  The 
name  is  derived  from  two  Latin  words — insecta,  insects,  and  voro, 
to  devour. 


THE   REASON   WUY  : 


Well  said,  old  Mole,  can'st  work  in  the  earth. 
So  fast7  a  worthy  pioneer!" — SIIAKSPKRE. 


193.  In   what  respects  is  the  anatomy  of  the    m-ole  admirably 
to  its  mode  of  life  ? 


The  animal  burrows  underground  in  pursuit  of  worms,  upon 
which  it  feeds"  Its  feet  are  so  many  shovels  ;  they  determine  the 
action  of  rooting  in  the  ground  ;  and  everything  about  the  animal's 
body  agrees  with  this  destination.  The  cylindrical  figure  of  the 
mole,  as  well  as  its  compact  form,  arising  from  the  terseness  of  its 
limbs,  proportionably  lessens  its  labour  ;  because,  according  to  its 
bulk,  it  thereby  requires  the  least  possible  quantity  of  earth  to  be 
removed  from  its  progress.  It  has  nearly  the  same  structure  of  the 
face  and  jaws  as  a  pig,  and  the  same  office  for  them.  The  nose  is 
sharp,  slender,  tendinous,  strong,  with  a  pair  of  nerves  going  doAvn 
to  the  end  of  it.  The  plush  covering  which,  by  the  smoothness, 
closeness,  and  polish  of  the  short  piles  that  compose  it,  rejects  the 

adhesion  of  almost  every 
species  of  earth,  defends 
the  animal  from  cold  and 
wet,  and  from  the  im 
pediment  which  it  would 
experience  by  the  mould 
sticking  to  its  body. 


194.  Let  us  compare  for  a  moment  the  bats  with  the  moles  with  reference  to  their 
iocomotion.  Both  are  insectivorous,  but  how  widely  different  in  their  conforma 
tion  !  The  bat  has  to  winnow  its  way  through  the  air  :  the  mole,  like  the  bat,  has 
to  re-act  against  a  given  medium — a  very  different  one,  certainly — and  is  endowed 
with  a  power  of  moving  through  that  medium  by  means  of  a  modification  of  the 
locomotive  organs  beautifully  adapted  to  its  density.  Instead  of  the  lengthened 
bones  of  the  fore-arm  that  so  well  assist  the  bat  to  make  its  way  with  outstretched 
wing  through  the  air,  all  in  this  part  of  the  organisation  of  the  mole  is  short  and 
compact,  to  enable  it  to  bore  through  the  dense  medium  where  it  is  to  live  and 
move  and  have  its  being.  The  development  is  all  anterior.  The  fore  part  of  the 
mole  forms  an  elongated  cone  ;  the  posterior  part  is  narrow  and  Email,  and  the 
whole  of  its  proportions  are  admirably  fitted  to  assist  it,  so  to  speak,  in  flying 
through  the  earth.  The  long  and  almost  round  scapula,  the  expanded  humerus, 
the  enormous  power,  in  short,  of  the  anterior  extremities,  and  the  great  strength 
and  compactness  of  the  fingers,  are  all  fitted  for  the  digging  duty  they  have  to  do 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


*'  The  glass  through  -which  an  envious  eye  doth  gaze, 
Can  easily  make  a  mole-hill  mountain  seem." — FLETCHER. 


Add  to  this  a  soft,  short-cut  vtivety  coat,  to  which  no  particle  of  soil  ever  adheres 
and  you  have  the  perfection  of  organisation  for  rapid  progress  through  th» 
ground.* 

195.   Why  are  moles  beneficial  to  farmers  ? 

Because  of  the  great  number  of  worms  which  they  devour, 
which  more  than  compensates  for  the  injury  they  are  supposed  to 
do  to  the  soil,  and  to  roots.  It  is  said  that  where  old  mole-hills  are 
most  abundant  in  sheep  pastures,  the  latter  animal  is  generally  in  a 
healthy  state,  as  it  feeds  on  the  wild  thyme  and  other  salubrious 
herbs,  which  flourish  on  these  heaps  of  earth.  It  is  also  said  that 
after  the  mole-hills  had  been  destroyed  in  a  park  which  belonged 
to  the  Earl  of  Essex,  the  deer  never  throve. 

The  Rev.  C.  A.  Bury  has  pointed  out  that'  the  good  resulting  to 
the  farmer  from  the  drainage  afforded  by  the  mole-hills  is 
considerable. 

196.  Every  one  is  aware  of  the  fact  that  the  mole  burrows  for  its  food,  that  its  nest 
is  formed  underground,  that  a  larger  hillock  than  the  rest  is  raised  for  the  reception 
of  its  young  ;  but  it  is  not  so  generally  known  that  its  subterranean  excavations 

are  of  the  most  distinct 
and  determinate  charac 
ter;  that  there  are  per 
manent  j>assages  or  high 
roads  for  its  ordinary  tra 
vels  from  one  part  of  its 
domain  to  another;  that 
into  these  roads  open  the 

excavations  in  which  it  follows  its  daily  labours  in  search  of  food  ;  that  its  fortress 
— the  house  in  which  it  resides  from  the  autumn  to  the  spring — is  of  a  complex 
and  most  ingenious  structure,  and  that  this  domicile  is  always  a  distinct  and  almost 
remote  building  from  that  in  which  the  nest  is  formed. 

The  district  or  domain  to  which  an  individual  mole  confines  himself  may  be 
termed  its  encampment.  Within  its  limits,  or  at  least  in  immediate  communication 
with  the  district,  all  the  labours  of  the  animal  are  pursued.  It  consists  of  the 
habitation  or  fortress,  from  which  extends  the  high-road  by  which  the  animal 
reaches  the  opposite  extremities  of  the  encampment,  and  of  various  galleries  or 
excavations  opening  into  this  road,  which  it  is  continually  extending  in  search  of 
food,  and  which  constitute,  in  fact,  its  hunting-ground.  The  fortress  is  formed 
under  a  large  hillock,  which  is  always  raised  in  a  situation  of  safety  and  protection 


Penny  Encyclopaedia. 


00  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


Pray  you,  tread  softly,  that  the  blind  mou'  n.ay  not 
Hear  a  foot  fall !  " — SHAKSPEKE. 


— either  under  t  bank,  against  the  foundation  of  a  wall,  at  the  root  of  a  tree,  or  in 
foine  similar  legality.  The  earth  of  which  the  dome  covering  this  curious 
h  ibitation  is  con'posed  is  rendered  exceedingly  strong  and  solid  by  being  pressed 
i  id  beaten  by  the  mole  in  forming  it.  It  contains  a  circular  gallery  within  the 
b.ise,  which  communicates  with  a  smaller  one  above  by  five  nearly  equidistant 
passages  ;  and  the  domicile  or  chamber  is  placed  within  the  lower  and  beneath  the 
upper  circular  gallery,  to  which  last  it  has  access  by  three  similar  passages.  From 
t'.ie  chamber  extends  another  road,  the  direction  of  which  is  at  first  downwards 
for  several  inches ;  it  then  rises  again,  to  open  into  the  high-road  of  the  encanp- 
oient.  From  the  external  circular  gallery  open  about  nine  other  passages,  the 
arirces  of  which  are  never  formed  opposite  to  those  which  connect  the  outer  with 
the  inner  and  upper  gallery  :  these  extend  to  a  greater  or  less  distancp,  and  return, 
each  taking  an  irregular,  semi-circular  route,  and  opening  into  the  high-road  at 
various  distances  from  the  fortress.  Such  is  a  very  hasty  description  of  this  most 
singular  structure  ;  and  nothing  surely  can  be  imagined  more  admirably  calculated 
to  ensure  the  security  or  the  retreat  of  the  inhabitant  than  such  an  arrangement  of 
internal  routes  of  communication  as  this.  The  chamber  communicating  beneath 
directly  with  the  road,  and  above  with  the  upper  gallery— this  with  the  lower  by 
five  passages,  and  the  latter  again  with  the  road  by  no  less  than  nine — exhibit 
altogether  a  complication  of  arcluteciure  which  may  rival  the  more  celebrated 
erections  of  the  beaver."  The  nest  is  always  distinct,  and  frequently  remote  from 
the  fortress,  and  is  usually,  but  not  always,  covered  by  a  hillock,  vhich,  when  it 
exists,  is  much  larger  than  an  ordinary  mole-hill.  It  is  formed  simply  by 
excavating  and  enlarging  the  point  of  intersection  by  three  or  four  passages.  The 
bjd  of  the  nest  is  composed  of  a  mass  of  herbage,  grass,  roots,  or  leaves.  In  one 
which  was  examined  by  Geoffrey  and  Le  Court,  no  less  than  two  hundred  and  four 
blades  of  young  wheat  were  counted.  This,  however,  can  scarcely  be  considered  as 
an  ordinary  occurrence,  as  they  generally  prefer  dry  and  soft  substances.  The 
period  of  gestation  is  supposed  to  be  about  two  months  or  upwards  ;  and  the  young 
are  brought  forth  in  April — sometimes  earlier,  at  others  later,  according  to  the 
season  :  indeed,  young  moles  have  been  found  at  all  times  from  the  beginning  of 
April  till  August,  which  has  led  some  persons  to  believe  that  there  are  more  than 
one  brood  in  the  year.  There  are  generally  four  or  five,  sometimes  as  few  as  three, 
rarely  six.* 

197.   Why  were  moles  once  thought  to  be  destitute  of  eyes  ? 

Because,  as  organs  of  sight,  if  highly  developed,  would  not  only 
be  useless  to  a  burrowing  animal,  but  a  hindrance  to  its  mining 
operations,  the  eyes  are  simply  rudimentary,  and  are  so  hidden  in 
the  fur  that  their  existence  was  for  a  long  time  doubted. 


•  Maunder's  "Treasury  of  Natural  History.' 


THE    REASOX   WHY:  6/ 


:  The  brooke  is  ready  to  o'rcflow  the  brim, 
Or  in  the  bancke  the  water  having  got 
Some  mole-hole  runs,  where  he  expected  not." — BROWNS. 


198.  Why    have    moles    elongated    muzzles,    endowed    with    a 
vefmed  sense  of  touch  ? 

Because,  being  nearly  destitute  of  sight,  they  are  gifted  with  an 
exquisite  sense  of  touch,  which  compensates  for  the  loss  of  the 
visual  faculty,  and  enables  them  to  find  their  food  in  the  darkness 
under  the  earth's  surface. 

199.  Wliy  are  "fairy  rings"  attributed  to  moles? 

It  is  supposed  by  some  naturalists  that  the  verdant  circles  thus 
denominated  are  owing  to  the  operations  of  these  animals,  who  at 
certain  seasons  perform  their  burrowmgs  in  a  series  of  circles, 
which,  loosening  the  soil,  give  the  surface  a  greater  fertility,  and 
consequent  rankness  of  grass. 

200.  Why    is    the    collar-bone  of    the  mole  of  extraordinary 
thickness   and   length  ? 

Because  the  peculiar  habit  of  the  animal  rendered  superior 
strength  in  this  part  of  the  body  necessary  in  order  to  facilitate  its 
progress  when  mining  its  way  through  the  ground.  The  collar-bones 
are  wanting  in  those  animals  that  use  their  anterior  extremities 
for  progression  only,  and  there  are  rudiments  of  them  in  such  as 
hold  a  middle  station. 

201.  IVliy  when    a  female    mole    is   caught  in  a  trap,  is  the 
male  frequently  found  lying  dead  close  beside  her  ? 

Because  the  attachment  between  these  animals  is  very  great ; 
and,  in  this  instance,  affection  overcomes  the  calls  of  hunger,  and 
the  fast  proves  fatal  to  the  animal. 

202.  WJiy  does  the  water-shrew  appear  to  be  of  a  bright  silvery 
irtour  when  swimming  ? 

Because  its  hairy  coat  repels  the  water,  and  forms  numerous 
bubbles  upon  the  surface,  producing  a  silver-like  appearance. 
When  the  little  animal  quits  the  water,  these  bubbles  fall  off, 
and  the  coat  remains  dry. 


THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  The  beaut  of  prey, 

Blood-stained,  deserA'es  to  bleed  ;  but  ye  flocks, 
What  have  you  done;  ye  peaceful  people,  what, 
To  merit  death  ?  " — THOMSON. 

203.   Wliy  is  the  hedgehog  covered  with  sliort  bony  spines  ? 

Being  helpless  and  inoffensive  these  spines  form  a  coat  of  armour 
effective  against  its  principal  enemies.  They  are  firmly  fixed 
in  a  tough  skin,  and  are  capable  of  resisting  a  great  amount  of 
force.  The  natural  enemies  of  the  hedgehog  are  weasels,  stoats, 
ferrets,  wild  cats,  and  foxes.  When  attacked  the  hedgehog  rolls 
itself  up,  and  waits  till  the  danger  has  passed.  It  is  rarely  that  its 
enemies  can  gain  advantage  over  it  when  once  rolled  within  its  coat 
of  prickly  armour. 

20  L  Tlie  hedgehog  is  destructive  of  snakes,  against  which  it  wages  war  in  the 
following  curious  manner : — The  cunning  quadruped  makes  a  sudden  attack  on  the 
reptile,  and,  giving  it  a  hard  bite,  instantly  rolls  itself  up  for  safety ;  then  cau 
tiously  unfolds  and  inflicts  another  wound,  repeating  its  attacks  until  the  snake  is 
powerless.  Then  the  hedgehog  feeds  upon  its  prey,  generally  beginning  with  the 
tip  of  the  tail,  and  proceeding  upwards. 


SUB-ORDER  III.— CARNIVORA. 

205.   Why  is  the  third  sub-order  of  carnaria  called  carnivora  ? 

The  term  implies  flesh-eaters,  and  is  used  to  distinguish  the  sub 
order  carnivora,  which  consists  of  flesh-devouring  quadrupeds,  from 
the  general  order  carnaria,  which  includes  insect  and  worm-eaters, 
as  well  as  flesh-eating  quadrupeds,  divided  into  three  sub-orders,  as 
already  explained. 

20d.   1-Pliy  have  carnivorous  animals  large  canine  teeth  ? 

Being  beasts  of  prey,  they  are  furnished  with  these  teeth  as 
weapons  for  seizing  the  creatures  upon  which  they  feed. 

207.  Why  are  their  molar  teeth  tuberculated  and  fitted  into  the 
surfaces  of  each  other  ? 

Because  the  flesh  which  they  devour  requires  to  be  lacerated  by  a 
cutting  motion.  The  jaws  of  carnivorous  animals  have  simply  an 
upward  and  downward  motion,  and  do  not  move,  also,  sideways  likt? 
the  jaws  of  the  ox,  and  other1  ruminants. 


NATURA1      HISTORY. 


Strong  is  the  lion — like  a  coal 
His  eyeball — like  a  bastion's  mole 
His  chest  against  the  foes. — SMART. 


208.  What  anatomical   features    of    the    carnivora    exhibit  a 
remarkable  adaptation  to  their  modes  of  life  ? 

As  they  feed  on  living  animals,  they  are  generally  swift  to 
pursue  ;  and,  as  well  as  being  armed  with  canine  teeth,  have  strong 
talons,  adapted  for  seizing  their  prey.  These  talons  are  retractile, 
that  is,  they  are  capable  of  being  drawn  in  between  the  toes,  by 
which  they  are  protected  from  being  blunted  by  contact  with  the 
ground.  Their  sight  is  keen,  and  even  more  so  by  night  than  by 
day.  Their  senses  of  hearing  and  of  smell  are  highly  developed  ; 
their  nostrils  are  studded  with  whiskers,  which  are  susceptible  of 
the  slightest  impression  of  touch,  and  their  feet  are  padded,  so  that 
they  can  tread  noiselessly. 

209.  Why  is  the  lion  'provided  with  such  a  large  mane  ? 

The  formidable  clothing  is  with  difficulty  penetrated  by  an 
ordinary  weapon.  When  the  animal  is  prowling,  or  using  only  his 

ordinary  powers  of  locomo 
tion,  in  the  use  of  which  he 
is  generally  slow  and  majestic, 
his  mane  lies  a  considerable 
way  over  the  back,  hangs 
down  over  the  shoulders,  and 
there  protects  the  powerful 
muscles,  which  put  his  de 
structive  arm  in  motion,  from 
all  changes  of  temperature, 
so  that  they  are  never  stiffened 
by  cold,  or  relaxed  by  heat, 
even  when  the  animal  finds 
it  necessary  to  prowl  in  the  open  deserts  during  the  heat  of  the 
day,  or  in  the  dead  of  night. 

210.  Why  is  the  lion  termed  the  king  of  the  forest  ? 
Because  there  is  a  certain  majesty  in  his  mien  and  a  nobleness 

in  his  nature  which  raise  him  far  above  the  scale  of  wild  beasts  in 


70  THE   REASON   WHY: 


"  'Tis  the   royal  disposition  of  the  beast,  to  prey  on  nothing 
that  doth   seem'as  dead."— SHAKSPEKE. 


general.  The  courage  and  resolution  of  the  lion  are  conspicuous  ; 
and  he  possesses  such  an  incredible  degree  of  strength,  that  he  can 
bear  off  a  large  heifer,  or  an  antelope,  as  easily  as  a  cat 
would  carry  a  rat. 

211.  Why  when  a  person  is  attacked  by  a  feline  animal  may 
he  be  able  to  save  his   life  by   non-resistance  after  the  first  blow 
is  struck  ? 

Because  it  is  the  habit  of  this  class  of  animals,  having  once 
overcome  their  prey,  to  cease  for  a  certain  time  to  inflict  injury  on 
it.  The  mere  act  of  felling  their  victim  to  the  earth  appears  foir 
a  time  to  appease  the  rage  of  a  feline  animal.  Thus  a"  cat  will  sit 
by  the  mouse  it  has  captured  for  some  minutes  without  venturing 
to  molest  it  until  it  tries  to  make  its  escape  ;  and  the  lion  and  the 
tiger  will,  in  the  same  manner,  couch  by  the  side  of  its  prostrate 
victim  without  offering  to  harm  him  until  some  movement  is  made. 

212.  The  following  interesting  narrative,  related  by  an  eye-witness  of  tke  scene, 
will  be  found  to  illustrate  the  above-mentioned  peculiarity  of  the  feline  race  : — In 
the  month  of  July,  1831,  two  fine  lions  made  their  appearance  in  a  jungle  some 
twenty  miles  distant  from  the  cantonment  of  Rajcate,  in  the  East  Indies,  where 
Captain  Woodhouse  and  his  two  friends,  Lieutenants  Delamain   and  Lang  were 
stationed.     An  elephant  was  despatched  to  the  place  on  the  evening  on  which  the 
information  arrived  ;  and  on  the  morrow,  at  the  break  of  day,  the  three  gentlemen 
set  off  on  horseback  full  of  glee,  and  elated  with  the  hope  of  a  speedy  engagement. 
On  arriving  at  the  edge  of  the  jungle,  people  were  ordered  to  ascend  the  neigh 
bouring  trees,  that  they  might  be  able  to  trace  the  route  of  the  lions  in  case  they 
left  the  cover.    After  beating  about  in  the  jungle  for  some  time,  the  hunters  started 
the  two  lordly  strangers.    The  officers  fired  immediately,  and  one  of  the  lions  fell 
to  rise  no  more.    His  companion  broke  cover,  and  took  off  across  the  country.     The 
officers  now  pursued  him  on  horseback  as  fast  as  the  nature  of  the  ground  would 
allow,  until  they  learned  from  the  men  who  were  stationed  in  the  trees,  and  who 
held  up  flags  by  way  of  signal,  that  the  lion  had  gone  back  into  the  thicket.     Upon 
this,  the  three  officers  returned  to  the  edge  of  the  j  ungle,  and  having  dismounted 
from  their  horses,  they  got  upon  their  elephant,  Captain  Woodhouse  placing  himself 
'in  the  hindermost  seat.     They  now  proceeded  towards  the  heart  of  the  jungle,  in  the 
expectation  of  rousing  the  royal  fugitive  a  second  time.     They  found  him  standing 
under  a  large  bush  with  his  face  directed  towards  them.     The  lion  allowed  them  to 
approach  within  range  of  kis  spring,  and  then  lie  made  a  sudden  dart   at  tlie 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  '/] 


""  When  the  gaunt  lioness,  with  hunger  bold, 
Spring's  from  the  mountains  tow'rd  the  guarded  fold  ; 
Through  breaking  woods  her  rustling  cour.se  they  hear; 
Loud  and  more  loud  the  clamours  strike  the  ear  !  " — POPE. 

^ephant,  clung  on  his  trunk  with  a  tremendous  roar,  and  wounded  him  j  ust  above 
the  eye.  While  he  was  in  the  act  of  doing  this  the  two  lieutenants  fired  at  him,  but 
without  success.  The  elephant  now  shook  him  off ;  but  the  fierce  and  sudden 
attack  on  the  part  of  the  lion  seemed  to  have  thrown  him  into  the  greatest  con 
sternation,  and  much  exertion  was  used  before  his  riders  succeeded  in  urging  him 
on  again  in  quest  of  the  lion.  At  last  he  became  somewhat  more  tractable  ;  but  as 
he  was  advancing  through  the  jungle  all  of  a  sudden  the  lion,  which  had  lain  con 
cealed  in  the  high  grass,  made  at  him  with  redoubled  fury.  The  officers  now  lost 
all  hopes  of  keeping  their  eleph-mt  in  order.  He  turned  round  abruptly  and  was 
going  away  quite  ungovernable,  when  the  lion  again  sprang  at  him,  seized  on  his 
hinder  parts  with  his  teeth,  and  hung  on  them  until  the  affrighted  animal  managed 
to  shake  him  off  by  repeated  kicking.  The  lion  then  retreated  further  into  the- 
thicket.  The  officers  now  determined  upon  dismounting,  and  Captain  Woodhouse 
took  the  desperate  resolution  of  proceeding  on  foot  in  quest  of  the  lion.  After  some 
difficulty  he  succeeded  in  tracing  the  print  of  the  animal's  feet,  and  resolved  to 
follow  the  track  at  all  hazards.  In  the  meantime  Lieutenant  Dclamain,  who  stood 
outside  the  jungle,  caught  sight  of  the  lion  and  fired  at  him.  This  irritated  the 
beast  and  caused  him  to  rush  towards  his  assailant ;  in  doing  so  he  must  inpvitably 
cross  the  path  where  Captain  Woodhouse  was.  The  Captain  saw  this  and  resolved 
to  stand  still,  hoping  that  the  lion  would  pass  by  without  perceiving  him  ;  in  this, 
however,  he  was  undeceived,  for  the  enraged  animal  saw  him  in  passing,  and  flew 
at  him  with  a  dreadful  roar.  In  an  instant  the  Captain's  rifle  was  broken  and 
thrown  out  of  his  hand,  his  left  arm  at  the  same  moment  being  seized  by  the  claws, 
and  his  right  by  the  teeth  of  his  desperate  antagonist.  While  this  conflict  was 
going  on  Lieutenant  Delamain  ran  up  and  discharged  his  piece  at  the  lion.  This 
caused  the  combatants  to  come  to  the  ground  together,  while  Lieutenant  Delamain 
hastened  out  of  the  jungle  to  reload  his  gun.  The  lion  now  began  to  worry  the 
Captain's  arm;  who,  notwithstandir  $  the  pain  he  suffei-ed,  had  the  presence  of  mind 
to  lie  still ;  the  lion  thereupon  let  i  >e  arm  drop  out  of  his  mouth  and  quietly  placed 
himself  in  a  crouching  position,  with  br>th  his  paws  upon  the  thigh  of  his  fallen  fue. 
No  sooner,  however,  had  he  moce'*  *t,  than  the  lion  seized  the  lacerated  arm  a 
second  time,  crushed  it  as  before,  and  fractured  *he  bone  still  higher  up.  This 
reminded  the  Captain  that  he  had  committed  an  act  of  imprudence  on  stirring  which 
he  determined  to  profit  by.  He  now  lay  bleeding  and  disabled  under  the  foot  of  a 
mighty  and  irritated  enemy ;  and  with  the  terrors  of  death  before  his  very  eyes. 
At  this  moment  the  two  lieutenants  were  hastening  to  his  assistance,  and  he  heard 
the  welcome  sound  of  feet  approaching ;  but,  unfortunately,  they  were  in  a  wrong 
direction,  as  the  lion  was  betwixt  them  and  him.  Aware  that  if  his  friends  fired  the 
balls  would  hit  him,  after  they  had  passed  through  the  lion's  b^",  Captain  Wood- 
house  quietly  pronounced  in  a  low  and  subdued  tone,  "  To  the  other  side  !  to  the 
other  side  !"  Hearing  the  voice  they  looked  in  the  direction  from  whence  it  pro 
ceeded,  and  to  their  horror  saw  their  brave  companion  in  his  utmost  need.  Having 
made  a  circuit  they  cautiously  came  up  on  the  other  side,  and  Lieutenant  Delamain, 
from  a  distance  of  about  a  dozen  yards,  fired  at  the  lion  over  the  person  of  his  pros 
trate  friend.  The  lion  merely  quivered ,  his  head  dropped  upon  the  ground,  and  in 
an  instant  he  lay  dead  on  his  aide  close  to  his  intended  victim. 


72 


THE   REASON    WHY  ; 


'  Wythin  a  large  wyldernesse, 
Where  was  lyon  and  lyonesse, 
The  leparde,  and  the  tygre  also." — GOWER. 


213.  Why    may    we  conclude    that    the  sense    of  hearing  in 
panthers,  tigers,  &c,,  is  very  acute  ? 

Because  many  of  them  prey  only  in  the  woods,  and  all  of  them 
lurk  in  brakes  and  thickets,  and,  therefore,  quick  hearing  is 

essential  both  to  their  dis 
covering  their  prey  and  to 
prevent  their  prey  from  dis 
covering  them.  It  is  also 
a  confirmed  law  in  the 
economy  of  animals  that 
those  which  w?nk  softly  in 
proportion  to  their  weight 
are  always  quick  of  hearing. 
This  extends  even  to  human 
beings,  among  whom  it  is 
found  that  those  who  walk 
lightly  have  quicks  ears,  while  a  dull  ear  and  a  heavy  step  are 
always  associated.* 

214.  Why  is   tlie   tongue   oj  the   tiger,   lion,  and  some   other 
animals  so  rough  upon  its  upper  surface  ?     - 

Because  this  condition  of  the  tongue  enables  the  animal  to 
scrape  off  the  minute  particles  of  flesh  adherent  to  the  bones. 
The  'moderate  degree  in  which  this  peculiar  conformation  in  the 
tongue  exists  in  the  tongue  of  the  common  cat  is  familiar  to  every 
one  ;  in  the  lion  and  tiger,  however,  the  roughness  is  so  great  that 
one  stroke  of  the  tongue  is  sufficient  to  tear  the  skin  from  off 
a  man's  hand. 

215.  WTiy  do  beasts  of  prey  generally  roar   before  they  spring 
upon  their  victim  ? 

Because  they  desire  to  terrify  their  prey,  and  thereby  to 
overcome  them  more  easily.  Some  animals,  however,  such  as 


*  Partingtou's  *'  Cyclopaedia." 


NATURAL    EISTORY.  73 


'  So  when  a  lion  shakes  his  dreadful  mane, 
And  angry  grows, — if  he  that  first  took  pain 
To  tame  his  youth  approach  the  haughty  beast, 
He  bends  to  him."— WALLER. 

the  cat,  seize  their  prey  silently,  and  growl  while  they  devour  it 
In  these  cases  the  growl  is  probably  dictated  by  a  fear  of  losing 
what  they  have  seized,  and  as  a  menace  to  others  of  their  own 
species  who  might  seek  to  steal  it  from  them. 

216.  Why  are  the  pupils  of  the  eyes  of  carnivorous  animals 
variously  sliapcd? 

Because  the  various  habits  of  the  animals  require  a  different 
exercise  of  the  faculty  of  sight.  The  round  pupil,  contracting  from 
a  large  to  a  very  small  orifice,  is  found  in  animals  which  have 
occasion  to  use  the  eyes  with  nearly  equal  readiness  in  all  directions 
— vertical,  horizontal,  or  oblique  ;  the  eye  with  the  uprigM  pupil 
is  found  in  those  animals  which  have  most  occasion  to  use  their 
eyes  in  a  vertical  plane,  especially  above  them  ;  and  eyes  with 
the  horizontal  axis  is  found  in  those  which  have  most  occasion 
to  use  them  in  the  horizontal  plane. 

217.  Thus  in  the  dot/,  which  ranges  the  wide  field  for  its  subsistence,  th«  pupil  is 
round;  in  the  cat,  which,  in  a  state  of  nature,  feeds  in  copses,  either  upon  small 
quadrupeds  upon  the  ground  under  it,  or  on  birds  in  the  branches  above,  has  the 
greatest  power  of  the  eyes  in  the  vertical  direction  ;  and  in  the  hare,  which  h  as 
most  occasion  for  view  in  the  lateral  direction  only,  the  pupil  contracts  to  a  hori 
zontal  line.    This  is  even  more  remarkable  as  between  the  lion  and  the  tiger  ;  the 
former,  though  he  hides  in  bushes  and  thickets,  generally  preys  upon  animals 
which  are  in  the  open  places,  and  also  has  his  haunt  in  places  so  bare  as  that  he  can 
Bee  what  is  going  on  about  him,  has  the  pupil  round.    The  tiger,  on  the  other  hand, 
which  frequents  the  grassy  bottoms  of  jungles,  where  the  vegetation  interrupts  the 
lateral  view,  has  the  pupil  elongated  in  the  vertical  direction.* 

218.  Wliy  does  the  lion    lie  in  ivait  for  the  giraffe  in  tJu 
neighbourhood  of  water  ? 

Because  when  the  giraffe  stoops  to  drink  it  is  obliged  to  assume 
a  position  from  which  it  cannot  readily  start,  while  it  loses  the 
advantage  of  the  large  and  watchful  eyes  which,  when  its  head 
is  erect,  at  once  detect  the  approach  of  the  enemy  from  any 
direction. 

219.  Why  are  there  creatures  of  carnivorous  habits  in  all  th* 
classes  of  the  animal  kingdom? 

Because  the  prolific  tendency  of  the  herbivorous  races  would,  if 

•  Partington's  "  Cyclopaedia.'* 

i 


74  THE   REASON    WIIT  • 


But,  as  an  old  booke  saith,  who  will  assay 
About  the  enfa  nceke  to  hang  on  a  beU, 
Had  first  need  to  cut  the  cat's  clawes  away." 


tmchecked,  speedily  create  famine.  The  design,  therefore,  IB 
the  universal  distribution  of  carnivorous  creatures  is  to  restrain 
the  too  rapid  increase  of  vegetable  feeders,  by  which  scarcity  of 
our  own  food  would  soon  be  created. 

220.  The  myriads  of  insects  which  find  tbek  subsistence  on  our  forest-tires,  if 
allowed  to  increase  -without  restraint,  would  soon  destroy  the  life  that  supports  them, 
and  must  all  then  perish  together ;  but  another  tribe  (that  of  the  insectivorous  birds 
as  the  ivoodpceker)  is  adapted  to  derive  its  subsistence  from  them',  and  thus  to  keep 
within  salutary  bounds  the  numbers  of  these  voracious-  little  beings.  Sometimes, 
however,  they  increase  to  an  enormous  extent.  Whole  forests  have  been  destroyed 
&y  the  ravages  of  a  smgHe  species  of  beetle,  which  is  less  than  a  quarter  ef  an  inch 
in  length. 

221.  Wliy   d&    the    eyes  of  pertain    animals   "glare"   in    iht 
twilight  or  dark? 

It  was  once  supposed  that  the  eyes  of  animals  in  which  this 
phenomena  appears  possessed  the  power  of  emitting  light,  and 
acted  as  lanterns  in  the  direction  of  the  animal  to  seize  its  prey. 
But  this  appears  to  be  not  the  case.  The  light  is  reflected  from 
the  choroid  tissue,  which  has  a  sort  of  metallic  lustre,  and  reflects, 
after  the  manner  of  a  concave  mirror,  a  portion  of  the  light  which 
enters  the  widely-distended  pupil.  It  is  not  improbable  that  this 
reflected  light  is  thrown  upon  the  object  which  the  animal  desires 
to  investigate  or  to  seize.  Although  siiiall  in  amount,  it  May 
sufficiently  illuminate  an  object  to  impress  the  highly  sensitive 
retina  of  the  eyes  of  such  of  the  feline  species  in  which  this 
peculiarity  is  most  exhibited. 

222.  Why  do  not  their  eyes  glisten  in  the  daylight? 

Because  the  aperture  of  the  pupil  is  then  contracted.  The 
light  being  thus  excluded,  the  quantity  which  finds  admission 
to  the  eye,  and  falls  upon  the  coat  from  which  th»  reflection 
proceeds,  is  very  small.  But  when  the  animal  stands  in  a  dark 
shade,  the  pupil  dilates,  the  reflecting  coat  is,  as  it  wer< ,  exposed, 
and  the  eyes  glisten  just  as  much  during  the  day  aa  IP  tha 
right 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  75 


You  dread  reformers  of  an  impious  age, 
You  awful  cat-o'-nine-tails  to  the  stage, 
This  once  be  just,  and  in  our  cause  engage." — VANBTTRGH. 


223.  IPTiy-,  when  playing  with  a  cat,  does  she  turn  upon  her 
back  and  seize  your  hand  with  her  claws? 

The  cat,  thus  in  play,  imitates  the  habit  of  wild  animals  of  her 
species,  which,  when  they  seize  an  animal  large  enough  to  make 
the  capture  difficult,  hold  it  with  their  fore  paws,  turn  on  their 
backs,  and  then  by  working  rapidly  with  the  claws  of  the  hind 
feet,  they  tear  open  the  abdomen  of  their  prey. 

224.  JPhy    does  cropping   the  ea,rs  of  cats  close  to   the   head 
prevent  their  climbing  trees  and  destroying  birds  ? 

Because  the  interior  ear  of  the  cat  is  extremely  sensitive,  especially 
to  moisture.  When,  therefore,  the  external  ear  is  removed,  the 
animal  in  moving  about  is  subjected  to  constant  and  painful 
annoyances,  through  the  exposure  of  the  ear. 

This  practice  of  clipping  cats'  ears  is  much  resorted  to  in  British 
Guiana,  where  the  settlements  are  near  the  woods,  and  birds  so 
numerous  that  the  cats  are  continually  straying  after  them. 

225.  Cats  thus  cropped  cannot  go  into  the  open  air  at  all  during  the  rains  ;  and  even 
in  the  dry  season  they  cannot  pursue  their  feathered  prey  in  the  woods  at  night, 
which  is  their  favourite  hunting  time,  because  even  then  the  leaves  are  generally 
covered  with  heavy  dew,  which  the  progress  of  the  cat  causes  to  drop  into  the 
openings  of  the  ears,  and  thus  the  cat  is  obliged  to  stay  at  home  and  pursue  her 
mouse  and  rat-catching.* 

226.  Tfrhy   does   the    fur  of  cats  emit  electrical   sparks    when 
briskly  rubbed? 

Electricity  is  common  to  all  animal  bodies.  Although  not  fully 
understood,  it  may  be  regarded,  if  not  as  one  of  the  elements,  as  at 
least  one  of  the  conditions  of  life.  With  regard  to  the  electricity 
of  the  cat,  it  is  probable  that  the  emission  of  sparks  under  friction 
arises  from  the  peculiar  dryness  of  the  fur,  which  is  free  from  the 
oily  substance  common  to  the  coats  of  other  animals. 

227.  Hair  of  this  kind  is  a  very  bad  conductor  of  electricity,  and  as  such  it  can  be 
made  electric  by  friction.     It  will  be  readily  understood  that  this  non-conducting 
power  in  the  fur  of  the  cat  must  act  as  a  barrier  between  what  goes  on  internally 
and  the  external  atmosphere.    If  great  energy  is  by  any  means  excited,  this  pro 
perty  must  prevent  that  energy  from  being  dispersed  in  the  air;  and  this  concU. 

*  Fartingtou's  "  Cyclopedia." 


76  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  She  stretched  in  vain  to  reach  the  prize  ; 
\Vhat  female  heart  can  gold  despise  ? 
"What  cat 's  averse  to  fish  ?—  OKAY. 


tion  results  in  the  well-known  phenomena,  under  this  circumstance,  of  electrical 
discharges  assuming  the  form  of  sparks. 

228.  Why  are,  cats  seen  to  change  their  position  frequently,  and 
to  lick  themselves  incessantly  just  previously  to  a  storm  ? 

Because  when  a  storm  is  approaching  the  air  is  overcharged  with 
the  electrical  fluid,  to  which  cats  are  extremely  sensitiAre.  The 
hair  of  the  animal  is  the  first  thing  to  be  affected,  and  instead  of 
lying  down  smoothly,  it  becomes  ruffled,  and  probably  produces 
the  sensation  of  itching  ;  hence  she  is  constantly  rubbing  her  coat 
and  ears  to  smooth  down  the  hair,  and  wipe  off  the  cause  of  the 
irritation. 

229.  By  what  means  is  a  cat  enabled    to    extend  or    withdraw 
its   talons  ? 

In  the  foot  of  the  cat,  the  bone  to  which  the  claw  is  attached 
has  a  rotatory  movement  upon  the  preceding  one  ;  this  movement 
is  effected  in  one  direction  by  a  powerful  muscle,  which  draws  the 
bone  downward  and  causes  the  claws  to  project ;  whilst  there  is  a 
ligament  composed  of  elastic  fibrous  tissue  which  draws  the  bone 
in  the  other  direction,  and  retracts  the  claw  within  a  kind  of 
sheath. 

230.  When  the  animal  is  walking,  running,  or  leaping,  the  claws  are  thus  drawn 
in,  without  any  exertion  on  the  part  of  the  animal,  by  the  simple  elasticity  of  the 
ligament;  and  they  are  thus  secured,  either  from  receiving  injury  by  wear  against 
the  groxind,  or  from  impeding  the  movements  of  the  animal  by  becoming  entangled 
in  the  inequalities  of  its  surface,  or  in  the  vegetation  that  covers  it.  In  this  state  of 
the  claws  the  animal  bears  upon  a  number  of  soft  cushions,  one  beneath  each  toe, 
which  enable  it  to  steal  with  a  noiseless  step  upon  its  prey,  and  thus,  by  surprising 
them,  to  vanquish  animals  whose  size  would  make  their  resistance  formidable,  or 
whose  swiftness  would  afford  them  a  chance  of  escape  from  direct  pursuit. 

231.  Why  will  a  cat  refuse  vegetable  food  while  a  dog  will 
sometimes  accept  it  ? 

Because  the  cat  is  the  more  carnivorous  animal  of  the  two,  and 
its  teeth  and  other  apparatus  are  not  fitted  for  the  reception  of 
vegetable  matter ;  while  the  dog  being  less  carnivorous,  will  some 
times  accept  vegetable  food,  although  ordinarily  he  prefers 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  77 


"What   though   care   kill'cl   a   cat,    thou  hast  metal   enough 
in  thee   to   kill   care  ?"— SHAKSPKUE. 


232.  Why  do  cats  lap  fluids  so  slowly  ? 

Because  when  they  drink,  they  lap,  not  with  the  tongue  bent  up 
wards  at  the  tip  and  the  sides,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  spoon,  as  is 
the  case  with  the  dog,  but  with  the  tongue  bent  downwards  at  the 
tip  ;  and  hence  they  lap  more  slowly.  They  lap  in  this  manner 
for  the  purpose  of  filling  the  cup-shaped  papilla  of  the  tongne. 

233.  Why  is  a  cat  said  to  live  "  nine  lives  ? " 

Because  they  escape  without  injury  from  falls  and  concussions 
that  would  either  kill  or  maim  most  other  animals.  This  immunity 
from  peril  may  be  attributed  mainly  to  the  freedom  or  litheness  of 
the  joints  of  the  animal  ;  for  whatever  part  of  them  is  struck  or 
made  to  strike  against  any  obstacle  gives  way  like  a  spring  ;  and 
the  weight  of  the  bones  of  their  fore  paws  partly  conduces  to  bring 
them  to  the  ground  on  their  feet. 

234.  Wliy  d-oes  the  coati  burrow  beneath  the  roots  of  trees  ? 

Because  from  the  peculiar  nature  of  its  snout,  which  it  employs 
as  a  burrowing  instrument,  it  cannot  construct  a  burrow  with  a 
roof,  as  is  the  case  with  those  animals  which  dig  downward,  or 
laterally,  with  the  paws.  They,  therefore,  select  the  roots  of  trees, 
the  ramifications  of  which  afford  them  roofed  retreats,  which  the^ 
could  not  themselves  construct.  These  animals  burrow  in  company, 
and  it  is  said  that  they  often  undermine  trees  to  such  an  extent 
that  when  even  a  moderate  wind  comes,  they  are  overturned  in 
great  numbers. 

235.  Why  have  hears  such  an  awkward  and  shuffling  gait  ? 

Because  there  are  no  clavicles  to  keep  the  shoulder  bones  steadily 
apartv  and  thus,  as  the  fore-legs  are  moved,  the  blade  bones  "  work" 
much  more  on  the  sides  than  is  usual  in  animals.  The  hind  legs 
have  what  is  usually  the  finest  flexure — or  ankle  joint  in  other 
quadrupeds — at  the  ground,  in  bears,  and  thus  the  first  joint  of 
the:r  hind  legs  bends  the  contrary  way  to  that  with  which  we  tire 
most  %miliar. 


THE    REASON    WHY  : 


*'  They  have  tied  me  to  a  stake ;   I  cannot  fly ; 
But,  bear-like,  I  must  fight  my  course." — SHAKSPEHK. 


230.  From  these  peculiarities  of  formation,  we  are  apt  to  imagine  that  the  bear 
walks  with  pain  and  difficulty.  Such,  however,  is  not  the  case.  The  broad  base 
which  the  foot  of  the  bear  forms  enables  it  to  walk  very  securely,  even  in  difficult 
paths ;  its  progress  is  more  rapid  than  we  could  suppose,  and  the  firmness  with 
which  it  can  stand  on  the  flat  soles  of  its  hind  feet,  enables  it  to  use  the  fore  paws 
in  grasping.  The  want  of  clavicles  enables  it  to  grasp  and  hug  between  the  fore 
legs  much  more  powerfully  than  could  ba  performed  by  a  clavicled  animal ;  and  this 
power  is  of  great  service  to  it,  not  only  in  climbing,  an  operation  to  which  it  must 
often  have  recourse  for  its  food,  but  in  hugging  its  enemies,  which  it  does  so 
intensely,  that  a  strong  animal  is  in  their  grasp  strangled  by  compression  of  the 
chest.  Climbing  is,  however,  the  proper  function  of  the  want  of  clavicles,  and 
climbing  by  grasping  the  bole  of  the  tree  between  the  paws,  and  not  by  grasping 
with  the  single  paws  as  monkeys  do.  And  this  mode  of  climbing  answers  remark 
ably  well  in  those  places  where  bears  most  abound.  Pine  forests  are  its  haunts, 
and  where  pines  grow  closely  together,  they  have  no  lateral  branches  till  a 
considerable  height  from  the  ground.  Such  trees  could  not  easily  be  climbed  by 
animals  which  grasped  out  with  the  hands. 

237.  Why  are   bears  able  to  live  uninjured  in  exposed  places  ? 
Because  they  possess  a  coat  of  almost  impenetrable  thickness, 

and  have  also  a  quantity  of  fat  accumulated  under  it.  These 
protections  prevent  the  temperature  from  sinking,  and  prevent 
them  from  feeling  the  cold  and  other  effects  of  the  elements. 

238.  Why  is  a  bear  enabled  to  stand  in  an  upright  position, 
and  to  hug  objects  with  his  fore-paws  ? 

Because  he  possesses  a  more  perfectly  developed  collar-bone  than 
most  animals  ;  the  offiae  of  this  bone  being  to  keep  the  shoulders 
apart  from  the  chest,  and  to  thiow  the  action  of  the  muscles 
proceeding  from  the  ribs  upon  the  arm  bone,  which,  with  a  very 
imperfectly  formed  collar-bone,  would  be  drawn  inwards,  and 
contract  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk. 

239.  Why  is  it  a  vulgar  prejudice  against  badgers,  that  thcg 
burroiv  into  graves,  and  devour  the  bodies  of  the  dead  ? 

This  vulgar  error  arises  from  the  burrowing  habits  of  the  badger, 
coupled  with  its  peculiarly  offensive  odour.  Badgers,  however, 
burrow,  not  for  the  purpose  of  eating,  but  to  obtain  a  place  of 
shelter  and  safe  retreat.  Their  food  consists  only  of  those  creatures, 
•which  come  out  to  feed  during  the  night,  such  as  snails,  worms, 
*»ud  other  nocturnal  creatures. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  79 


*'  Some    ia     scarlet,    some   in   purple  cloth,    all    in 
skins,    as   is   prescribed." — SPELMAK. 


240.  Why  is  the  famih  b&dger  more  careful  than  the  male  m 
burrowing  in  secure  pl<w,es$ 

Because  tlie  male  requires  the  burrow  only  as  a  place  of  shelter 
daring  the  day  and  the  winter  ;  the  female  requires  the  additional 
accommodation  cf  a  nursery  for  her  young.  Therefore,  the  female 
is  in  part  influenced  by  her  natural  instinct,  and  works  in  accordance 
with  that  before  she  is  of  age  to  become  a  mother ;  while  the  male, 
into  whose  composition  no  such  instinct  enters,  takes  the  work 
more  easily. 

241.  Two  young  badgers,  a  male  and  a  female,  were  taken  out  of  the  burrow  of 
their  mother,  and  placed  in  a  paved  yard,  which  was  so  fenced  in  that  they  could 
not  escape,  and  yet  allowed  tkera  considerable  range .  They  unpaved  a  portion  of 
the  yard  aad  dug  a  burrow  in  which  they  spent  the  day,  and  came  out  in  the  night 
cnly  to  eat  tke  food  which  was  placed  for  them.  After  continuing  a  year  in  the 
court  they  were  put  into  a  small  enclosure  walled  round  with  stone,  and  having  a 
mound  of  earth  in  the  centre.  Trite  to  their  hab'it  of  digging  on  sloping  banks 
where  tkere  are  stones  to  support  their  entrance,  they  first  tried  the  walls  all  round, 
to  find  a  place  where  they  could  dig  a  habitation.  They  then  chose  an  opening 
Between  two  stones  which  was  &  littie  elevated  above  the  ground,  and  had  the 
upper  stone  projecting  over  it.  In  nature  the  entrance  to  the  badger's  burrow  i,j 
often  under  &  projecting  stone,  which  partially  conceals  it,  and  protects  it  from  the 
rain.  They  had  some  difficulty  in  reaching  this  place,  as  it  required  nearly  the 
whole  length  of  their  bodies  standing  on  the  hind  feet,  and  the  fore  feet  had  in 
consequence  little  influence  on  the  plaster  and  stones.  They  tried  a  resource, 
however ;  tke  male  lay  down  close  by  the  bottom  of  the  wall,  and  the  female, 
standing  on  hira,  c«uld  reach  the  desired  place  with  more  effect.  All  would  not  do, 
so  they  abandoned  the  place  and  -tried  the  result  at  others,  always  selecting  a  place 
under  a  projecting  stone.  In  th^se  attempts,  which,  though  they  all  proved 
tmsuceessful,  were  carried  on  with  great  energy  and  perseverance,  the  female  was 
the  most  active,  selecting  the  places  and  being  the  principal  operator.  After  many 
fruitless  attempts  they  abandoned  tke  walls  and  betook  themselves  to  the  mound  of 
earth,  the  female,  as  in  other  cases,  leading  the  way.  Even  here  they  did  not  at 
once  begin  to  form  the  burrow,  but  ran  trial  lines  or  trenches  over  a  considerable 
part  of  tke  surface,  till  they  came  to  a  place  wkiek  suited  them,  and  here  they 
began  their  regular  operations.  In  the  first  losening  of  the  earth  they  used  the 
nose,  then  th-jy  dug  deeper  with  tke  fore  paws,  flinging  tke  earth  backwards 
between  th<?  hind  ones,  and  afterwards  using  tkem  to  remove  the  heap  still  furtner 
in  the  rear.  When  the  heap  behind  them  accumulated,  they  retreated  backward* 
upon  it,  and  using  all  tke  paws  gradually  removed  it  from  the  hole.  Sometimes 
one  of  them,  n  ould  lie  down  to  rest  by  tke  side  of  the  other  at  work  and.  remain, 
though  half-buried  in  the  earth,  and  apparently  giving  considerable  interruption  to 
fts  fellow.  The  male  was  most  prone  to  indulge  in  these  lazy  fits,  while  the 
was  by  far  the  most  industrious  in  the  labour. 


80  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  In  hollow  caverns  vermin  make  abode, 
The  hissing  serpent,  and  the  swelling  toad, 
The  corn-devouring  iccascl  here  abides, 
And  the  -wise  ant  her  wintry  store  provides." — DHTDJN. 

242.  WJiy  was  badger  hunting  an  amusement  of  former 
times  ? 

Because  the  animal  is  of  a  very  pugnacious  disposition,  posses 
sing  great  muscular  power  and  astonishing  strength  of  jaws  ;  its 
strong  leathery  hide  also  provides  it  with  a  defensive  coat  of  mail, 
and  from  these  combined  characteristics  the  animal  is  rendered  a 
formidable  enemy  to  attack  or  to  cope  with. 

243.  The  badger  is  taken  in  various  ways.  The  favourite  mode,  and  that  which 
is  perhaps  the  most  successful,  is  by  catching  him  in  a  sack  placed  at  the  entrance 
of  his  hole.  The  haunt  of  the  badger  being  ascertained,  a  moonlight  night  is 
chosen,  when  he  is  out  feeding,  and  a  small  sack  is  placed  within  the  mouth  of  the 
hole,  fastened  at  the  outside,  with  the  mouth  of  the  bag  outwards,  and  having  a 
running  string  round  it.  Two  or  three  couples  of  hounds  are  then  thrown  off 
at  some  distance,  and  as  soon  as  the  badger  hears  their  cry,,  he  makes  for  his  home 
with  all  speed,  and  runs  into  the  sack,  which  closes  behind  him  by  the  tightening  of 
the  running  string  round  it.  Another  method  is  by  digging  him  out.  This, 
however,  is  laborious,  and  not  always  successful,  particularly  in  sandy  soils,  in 
which  the  badger  will  easily  foil  the  dogs  which  pursue  him  in  his  subterranean 
passage,  by  throwing  the  earth  back  upon  them  and  blocking  up  their  way,  whilst 
he  takes  advantage  of  their  loss  of  time  and  makes  his  way  to  the  surface. 

244.  What  gave,    rise    to    the  old  proverb  of  (l  Cateh  a  weasel 
asleep,"  &e.  ? 

When  awake  weasels  are  particularly  expert  in  eluding  capture. 
But  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  imagine  an  animal  sleeping  more 
soundly  than  the  weasel  does  when  once  it  gives  itself  up  to  rest. 
It  may  be  taken  up  by  the  head,  the  heels,  or  the  tail,  and  swung 
about  for  a  considerable  time  before  it  begins  to  awake.  In  fact, 
although  it  is  a  snappish  little  animal  when  awake,  there  is  not 
one  with  which  greater  liberties  may  be  taken  when  once  asleep. 

245.  Why  is  the  weasel  peculiarly  adapted  for  hunting  mice  in 
wheat  ricks  ? 

Because  it  possesses  a  long  flexible  body  and  an  extraordinary 
length  of  neck  ;  the  closeness  of  its  fur,  and  its  extreme  agility 
and  quickness  of  movement,  combine  to  adapt  it  to  suoh  habits,  in 
which  it  is  also  much  aided  by  its  power  of  hunting  by  scenfc. 

246.  In  pursuing  a  rat  or  a  mouse  the  weasel  not  only  follows  it  as  long  as  i* 
i  f-nmius  in  sight,  but  continues  the  chase  after  it  has  disappeared,  with  the  hea-'i 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  81 


"  Out  of  my  door,  you  witch,  you  rag,  you  baggage,  you 
\jole-cat  !  " — SHAKSPKKK. 


raised  a  little  above  the  ground,  following  the  exact  track  taken  by  its  destined 
prey.  Should  it  lose  the  scent,  it  returns  to  the  point  where  it  was  lost,  and 
quarters  the  ground  with  great  diligence  till  it  has  recovered  it,  and  thus,  by  dint 
of  perseverance,  will  ultimately  hunt  down  a  swifter  and  even  a  stronger  animal 
*han  itself.  "But  this  is  not  all :  in  the  pertinacity  of  its  pursuit  it  will  readily 
take  the  water,  and  swim  with  great  ease  after  its  prey. 

247.  What  gave  rise  to  the  saying  of  "  Stinking  like  a 
polecat  ?  " 

The  pole-cat  is  provided  with  small  glands  on  the  posterior  part 
of  the  body  which  secrete  a  fluid  possessing  a  most  offensive  odour. 
The  purpose  of  this  odour  has  been  held  to  be  the  protection  of 
the  pole-cat  from  animals  that  otherwise  would  prey  upon  it. 

2*8.  A  similar  power  is  possessed  by  numerous  animals  called  mephitic  (offensive  to 
the  smell).  Of  these  the  chlnche  appears  to  possess  it  in  a  high  degree.  The 
offensive  odour  is  confined  exclusively  to  the  apparatus  by  means  of  which  it  is 
produced  and  emitted  ;  and  when  this  is  removed,  the  offensiveness  ceases.  When 
the  animal  is  pursued  and  annoyed  the  battery  is  discharged,  not  in  mere  gas,  but  in 
a  liquid,  which  instantly  evaporates,  and  is  so  buoyant  and  dispersive,  and 
at  the  same  time  so  powerful,  that  it  will  taint  the  air  lor  a  mile  or  for  several 
miles  round.  When  near  at  hand,  it  is  perfectly  intolerable,  and  the  staunches!  dog 
is  instantly  arrested  by  it. 

The  following  brief  story  is  told  by  Kalmer : — "In  the  year  1749,  one  of 
these  animals  came  near  the  farm  where  I  lived.  It  was  in  winter,  during  the 
light,  and  the  dogs  that  were  on  the  watch  pursued  it  for  some  time,  until  it 
discharged  against  them.  Although  I  was  in  my  bed  a  good  way  off,  I  thought  I 
should  be  suffocated  ;  and  the  cows  and  oxen  by  their  lowings  showed  how  much 
they  were  affected  by  the  stench.  About  the  end  of  the  same  year  another  of  these 
animals  crept  into  our  cellar,  but  did  not  exhale  the  smallest  scent,  because  it  was  not 
disturbed.  A  foolish  woman,  however,  who  perceived  it  at  night  by  the  shining 
of  its  eyes,  killed  it,  and  at  that  moment  its  stench  began  to  spread.  The  whole 
cellar  was  filled  with  it  to  such  a  degree  that  the  woman  kept  her  bed  for  several 
days  afterwards,  and  all  the  bread  and  meat  and  other  provisions  that  were  kept 
there  were  so  affected  that  they  were  thrown  out  of  doors." 

249.  }l  hat  originated  the  proverb,  "  He  builds  closely  with  dry 
stones  who  can  build  out  the  weasel  ? " 

Because  the  animal  has  such  extreme  flexibility  of  body  that  it 
has  been  known  to  worm  its  body  through  a  hole  less  than  three 
inches  in  diameter.  It  is  also  a  very  expert  climber,  and  can 
ascend  a  wall  or  a  tree  with  the  utmost  celerity. 


T2  THE    REASON    WHY 


"  I  ordered  the  proper  officer  of  my  court  to  ferret  them  out  of  their 
respective  lanes,  and  bring  them  before  me." — TATL.KK. 

250.   Why  are  ferrets  dangerous  animals  to  keep  in  a  state  of 

domestication  ? 

Because  they  are  animals  incapable  of  discriminating  attachment, 
and  the  tanieness  they  evince  is  deceptive,  being  nothing  more  than 
the  indifference  and  absence  of  fear 
and  anger,  which  are  the  result  of 
hereditary  dependence  upon  and  ^e&J&'m 
association  with  mankind.  But 
when  an  opportunity  arrives,  and 
this  animal  is  tempted  by  the  taste  or  smell  of  blood,  the  ferret 
becomes  indiscriminate  and  savage  in  its  attack  even  on  human 
beings. 


J51.  The  following  anecdote  related  by  Mr.  Jesse  in  illustration  of  the  ferocity  of 
tae  ferret  is  recorded  here  with  a  view  of  discouraging  persons  from  making  pets 
of  these  vicious  creatures  : — Some  few  years  ago,  a  poor  woman,  holding  a  mangled 
infant  in  her  arms,  rushed,  screaming  v.  .th  agony  and  fright,  into  my  friend's  house, 
who  is  a  surgeon,  imploring  him  to  save  the  child's  life,  who,  she  said,  had  been 
almost  killed  by  a  ferret.  The  face,  neck,  and  arms,  were  dreadfully  lacerated,  the 
jugular  vein  had  been  opened,  as  also  the  temporal  artery ;  the  eyes  were  greatly 
inj  ured,  and,  indeed,  the  child,  who  is  still  living,  has  lost  the  entire  sight  of  one 
of  them,  and  has  very  imperfect  vision  in  the  other.  Having  stopped  the  still 
bleeding  vessels,  my  friend  accompanied  the  mother  to  her  cottage,  on  entering 
which  the  child,  in  some  degree  recovering  from  its  state  of  apparent  death,  began 
to  cry,  when  the  ferret  was  in  an  instant  seen  rushing  from  behind  some  bavins 
where  he  had  taken  shelter,  and,  with  his  head  erect,  boldly  came  forward  ond  met 
the  infuriated  parent  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  still  holding  the  infant  in  her  arms. 
On  my  friend's  kicking  the  ferret,  as  the  fi  "st  impulse  of  protection,  the  animal 
endeavoured  to  seize  his  leg,  and  not  until  his  back  was  broken  by  repeated  kicks 
did  he  give  over  his  earnest  and  reiterated  attempts  to  renew  his  sanguinary  feast ; 
indeed,  whilst  in  the  agonies  of  death,  the  piteous  screams  of  the  child  seemed 
to  rouse  him  to  vain  efforts  to  regain  his  prey.  The  ferret  was  of  large  growth, 
and  much  distended  with  the  infant's  blood ;  and,  although  formerly  of  peculiar 
shyness,  yet  he  lost  sight  of  fear  and  became  ferocious  in  the  pursuit  of  the  unfor 
tunate  infant.  It  appears  the  poor  woman  had  left  her  child  (about  six  months  old) 
in  a  cradle  whilst  she  went  to  market,  when  it  is  supposed  the  infant's  cry  had 
arrested  the  attention  of  the  ferret,  who  managed  to  make  his  escape,  and  thus 
effected  his  purpose.  There  is  good  reason  to  believe  he  must  have  passed  more 
than  half  an  hour  in  the  indulgence  of  his  appetite,  from  the  circumstances  of  the 
neighbours  having  heard  the  piercing  shrieks  of  the  child  for  a  long  time  without 
the  slightest  suspicion  of  the  mother's  absence. 


NATURAL  msront, 


"  Th'  amphibious  otter  bold,  the  weasel  sly, 
Piiferuig  the  yolk  from  its  enclosing  shell."— DODSLEY. 


252.  Why   do   otters,    when    hunting   for  fish,    always    swim 
against  the  stream  ? 

Because  fishes,,  when  reposing  or  waiting  for  food,  have  their 
heads  up  the  water ;  and  thus  the  other  can  come  upon  them 
and  capture  them  unawares. 

Another  reason  is,  thai  as  otters  return  to  the  neighbourhood  of 
their  burrow  with  the  fish  they  have  captured,  they  can  more 
easily  do  so  by  swimming  with  their  burthen  in  the  direction 
,*f  the  stream. 

253.  What  are  the  points  of  similarity  and  difference  between 
the  dog  and  tlw  wolf,  to  which   animal  the  origin  of  the  dog  is 
attributed  ? 

The  skeleton  of  the  wolf  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  of 
the  dog  more  than  that  of  the  different  kinds  of  dogs  vary  ;  the 
cranium  is  similar,  and  they  agree  in  nearly  all  the  other  essential 
points  ;  the  dog  and  wolf  will  readily  breed  with  each  other,  and 
their  progeny  thus  obtained  will  again  mingle  with  the  dog.  The 
most  prominent  circumstance  which  marks  a  decided  difference 
between  the  two  animals  is  the  eye  :  this  organ  in  the  dog  of  every 
country  and  species  has  a  circular  pupil ;  but  the  position  or  form 
of  the  pupil  in  the  wolf  is  oblique.  It  should  also  be  remembered 
that  in  every  part  of  the  globe  in  which  the  wolf  is  found,  a 
peculiar  setting  on  of  the  curve  of  the  tail,  and  a  singularity  of 
voice,  cannot  fail  of  being  observed  ;  to  which  may  be  added,  that 
the  dog  exists  in  every  latitude  and  in  every  climate,  while  the 
habitation  of  the  wok"  is  confined  to  certain  parts  of  the  globe. 

254.  There  is,  also,  a  marked  difference  in  the  temper  and  habits  of  the  two.  The 
dog  is,  generally  speaking,  easily  manageable,  but  nothing  will,  in  the  majority  ot 
cases,  render  the  wolf  moderately  tractable.     There  are,  however,  exceptions  to  this. 
M.  F.  Cuvier  gives  an  account  of  a  young  wolf  who  followed  his  master  everywhere, 
and  showed  a  degree  of  affection  and  submission  scarcely  inferior  to  the  domesti 
cated  dog.    His  master  being  unavoidably  absent,  he  was  sent  to  the  menagerie, 
where  he  pined  for  his  loss,  and  would  scarcely  take  any  food  for  a  considerable 
time.    At  length,  however,  he  attached  himself  to  his  keepers,  and  appeared  to 
have  forgotten  his  former  associate.     At  the  expiration  of  eighteen  months  his 


84  THE   REASON   WHY  I 


"  The  poor  dog  !  in  life  the  firmest 
The  first  to  welcome,  foremost  to  defend  ; 
"Whose  honest  heart  is  still  his  master's  own, 
Who  labours,  fights,  lives,  breathes  for  him  alone." — BYRON. 

master  returned,  and,  the  moment  his  voice  was  heard,  the  wolf  recognised  him, 
and  lavished  on  his  old  friend  the  most  affectionate  caresses.  A  second  separatior 
followed,  which  lasted  three  years,  and  again  the  long-remembered  voice  was  recog 
nised,  and  replied  to  with  impatient  cries  ;  after  which,  rushing  on  his  master,  he 
licked  his  face  with  every  mark  of  joy,  menacing  his  keepers,  towards  whom  ht> 
had  just  before  been  exhibiting  fondness.  A  third  separation  occurred,  and  he 
became  gloomy  and  melancholy.  He  suffered  the  caresses  of  none  but  his  keepers, 
and  towards  them  he  often^manifested  the  original  ferocity  of  his  species. 

255.  Assuming  the  original  identity  of  the  dog  and  the  wolf, 
why  is  there  a  difference  in  the  pupils  of  their  eyes  ? 

Professor  Bell  attributes  the  forward  direction  of  the  eyes  in 
dogs,  and  the  circular  •  pupil,  to  the  constant  habit,  for  many 
generations,  of  looking  forwards  towards  their  masters. 

256.  Why  may  we,  infer  that  all  the  varieties  of  dogs  spring 
from  a  common  origin? 

Because  we  have  many  opportunities  of  observing  the  varieties 
produced  by  accidental  causes,  and  we  see  those  accidental  varieties 
diliger'ly  cultivated  into  new  species,  altogether  different  in  form 
and  use  from  any  that  preceded  them. 

257.  We  see  the  changes  climate  and  breeding  effect  in  dogs  illustrated  b> 
the  rough  Irish  or  Highland  greyhound  and  the  smoother  one  of  the  southern 
part  of  Britain ;  the  more  delicate  one  of  Greece,  and  the  diminutive  one 
of  Italy,  and  the  hairless  one  of  Africa  and  Brazils.  One  of  the  most  striking 
proofs  of  the  influence  of  climate  on  the  form  and  character  of  this  animal  occurs  in 
the  bull -dog.  When  transported  to  India  he  becomes,  in  a  few  years,  greatly 
altered  in  form,  loses  all  his  former  courage  and  ferocity,  and  becomes  a  perfect 
coward.* 

258.  Why  is  the  Isle  of  Dogs  so  called  ? 

Because  in  the  reign  of  King  John  it  was  made  the  receptacle 
and  breeding  ground  of  the  greyhounds  and  spaniels  of  that 
monarch.  It  was  selected  on  account  of  its  contiguity  to  Waltham 
and  other  royal  forests,  where  coursing  was  a  frequent  amuse 
inent. 

t  "Youatt  on   the  Tog," 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  85 


"The  greyhounds  forth  are  brought,  for  coursing  then  in  case, 
And  choicely  in  the  slip,  one  leading  forth  a  brace; 
The  finder  puts  her  up,  and  gives  her  coursers  law." — DRAYTON. 


259.   Why    does   the  greyhound  hunt   by  sight   alone  ? 


Because  he  has  been 
trained  to  depend  upon 
his  speed,  and  that  speed 
is  utterly  incompatible 
with  the  tracing  of  scent. 


260.  Packs  of  hounds  run  by  sight  when  the  nature  of  the  country  allows  them 
to  have  a  full  view  of  the  hare.  When  thus  running  they  nearly  double  their 
speed,  but  are  liable  to  lose  ground  by  being  thrown  out  in  consequence  of  a  sudden 
turn,  or  change  of  country ;  they  have  to  seek  the  scent  before  they  can  again 
take  up  the  running.  The  English  greyhound,  on  the  contrary,  is  called  off 
the  moment  he  loses  sight  of  the  hare,  the  re -finding  of  which  is  left  to  the 
spaniel. 

261.  Wliy  should  the  neck  of  the  greyhound  be  long  ? 

Because  it  is  necessary  that  this  portion  of  the  frame  should 
correspond  with  the  length  of  the  legs,  and  thus  enable  the  dog  to 
seize  and  lift  the  game  as  he  rapidly  pursues  his  course,  without 
throwing  any  undue  or  dangerous  weight  on  the  fore  extremities. 
In  the  act  of  seizing  the  hare  the  short-necked  dog  may  lose  the 
centre  of  gravity  and  fall. 

262.  Why  are  greyhounds   less  attached  to  their  masters  than 
a/re  other  dogs  ? 

Because  the  greyhound  has  less  opportunities  of  forming 
individual  attachments  than  other  dogs  ;  the  whole  purpose  of 
his  life  being  to  follow  game.  The  keeper  exercises  over  him  a 
tyrannical  power,  and  the  owner  seldom  notices  him  in  the 
manner  which  begets  affection  or  scarcely  recognition.  • 

263.  Jf'liy  in  coursing  are  two  dogs  employed? 

Because  hares   make  sudden  turns,  by  which  they  frequently 


SC  THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  So  flewed,  so  sanded,  and  their  heads  are  hung 
With  ears  that  sweep  away  the  morning  dew ; 
Oook-knee'd,  and  dew-lapp'd,  like  Tliessalian  bulls  ; 
Slow  in  pursuit,  but  matched  in  mouth  like  bells." — SHAKSPERE. 

escape  from  single  dogs.  A  good  greyhound  will  reach  a  hare  if 
&he  runs  straight ;  but  the  moment  he  is  about  to  strike  at  her  she 
turns  short,  and  the  dog,  unable  to  stop  himself,  is  thrown  from 
ten  'to  twenty  yards  from  her.  When,  however,  pursued  by  a 
couple  of  dogs,  the  hare  has  a  more  difficult  game  to  play,  as  it 
frequently  happens  that  when  she  is  turndd  by  the  leading  dog 
she  cannot  avoid  the  strokes  of  the  second. 


264.  JFliy  should  beagles  have  large  heads  ? 

Because  they  depend  almost 
wholly  upon  scent  for  their 
success  in  the  hunt.  A  large 
broad  head  is  accompanied  by 
expanded  nasal  organs,  contri 
buting  to  acute  smelling  ;  while 
the  same  form  of  head  is 
adapted  for  the  reverberation 
of  the  sound  for  which  the 
beagle  is  remarkable. 

265.  Wliy  should   sporting  dogs    generally  be  kept  to  their  own 
game  ? 

Because   by  such  restriction   they  become   improved  for  their 
special  duty,  having  only  one  scent,  and  one  style  of  hunting. 

266.  Wliy  have  bloodhounds  proved  so  efficacious  in  the  pursuit 

of  fugitives  ? 

Because  special  means  have  been  carefully  employed  with  the 
horrible  design  of  training  these  dogs  to  entertain  an  insatiable 
thirst  for  human  blood. 

267.  Bloodhounds  were  formerly  much  employed  in  pursuing  criminals  escape*! 
from  justice,  or  in  tracing  out  robbers  or  enemies,  whose  course  was  invariably 
discovered,  when  once  the  bloodhound  was  placed  upon  their  trail.    In  the  border 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


87 


"Soon  the  sagacious  brute,  his  curling  tail 
Flourished  ia  air,  low  bending,  plies  around 
His  busy  no»e,  the  ^teaming  vapour  snuii's." — SOMEIIVILLE. 


country  of  Scotland,  they  were  formerly  much  employed  for  such  uses,  but  at  present 

the  race  has  become  almost  forgotten. 
In  the  countries  of  South  America,  the 
Spaniards  employed  fierce  dogs  to  aid 
them  in  conquering  the  Indians,  but  it 
is  not  certain  that  the  dogs,  trained  by 
them  to  this  cruel  business,  belonged 
to  the  present  variety. 

All  the  varieties  of  hound,  however, 
have  much  sagacity,  and  most  of  the 
larger  and  stronger  breeds  have  great 
acuteness  of  scent,  and  might,  without 
much  difficulty,  be  trained  to  act  as 
bloodhounds. 

268.  Why  is  the  sense  of  smell  so  acute  in  dogs  ? 

The  olfactory  nerve  in  the  horse,  the  dog,  the  ox,  and  the  swine,  is 
the  largest  of  all  the  cerebral  nerves,  and  of  much  greater  compara 
tive  bulk  in  the  quadruped  than  in  the  human  being.  The  sense 
of  smell,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  nerve  upon  which  it  depends, 
is  still  more  acute.  The  relative  size  of  the  nerve  bears  an  invari 
able  proportion  to  the  necessity  for  an  acute  sense  of  smell  in  the 
various  animals — large  in  the  horse,  compared  with  the  olfactory 
nerve  in  the  ox,  which  is  sent  into  the  fields  to  shift  for  himself— 
larger  still  in  the  swine,  whose  food  is  buried  under  the  soil,  or 
deeply  immersed  in  refuse — and  still  larger  in  the  dog. 

269.  Why  do  dogs  lose  their  scent  for  game-birds  during  the 
season  of  incubation  ? 

It  is  a  common  notion  that  this  arises  from  some  temporary 
defect  in  the  organ  of  smell  of  the  dog  ;  but  it  would  appear  more 
probable  that  birds  lose,  or  rather  do  not  emit,  scent  during  the 
time  in  question,  and  this  may  be  owing  to  the  habits  or  condition 
of  the  birds  being  changed  during  the  period  of  incubation.  In 
this  may  be  perceived  a  wise  and  merciful  provision  of  nature  to 
protect  the  birds  from  harm  during  this  trying  and  important 
season. 


85  THE    REASON    WHY  ; 


"Neglected  Tray  and  pointer  lie, 
And  covics  unmolested  fly." — PRIOR. 


270.   Why  do  sporting  dogs  make  what  is  termed  a  "point  ?* 

Because  they  are  conscious  of  having  got  too  close  upon  the 
birds,  and  halt  suddenly  for  fear  of  disturbing  them  before  a  shot 
can  be  given  ;  and  this  action  not  only  accomplishes  the  end  in 
view,  but  serves  to  acquaint  the  sportsman  that  there  is  game 
in  the  immediate  locality. 

271.  The  moment  the  pointer  falls  upon  tha  scent,  he  not  only  makes  a  sudden 
halt,  but  assumes  at  once  an  attitude  of  very  great  peculiarity,  and  such  as  must  be 
seen  before  it  can  be  fully  appreciated  or  understood.  In  an  instant  he  may  be  seen 
standing  on  three  legs,  one  of  the  fore  feet  being  raised,  and  his  face,  back,  and 
tail  all  drawn  into  a  line.  This  is  his  invariable  position  when  the  scent  is  taken 
naturally,  but  when  it  is  interfered,  with,  such  as  running  with  the  wind,  or  barred 
by  an  impenetrable  fence,  or  any  other  circumstance,  and  the  clog  stumbles  in 
consequence  suddenly  upon  the  game,  he  then  pulls  himself  up  so  instantaneously 
that  not  one  of  his  limbs  is  suffered  to  move  after  the  instant  the  scent  is  dis 
covered  ;  and  however  singular  the  conformation  of  his  body  at  that  moment,  or 
however  painful  to  him  that  attitude,  he  will  maintain  it  with  unswerving1 
steadiness  until  the  sportsman  arrives.  Sometimes  it  has  happened  that  when  thy 
pointer  has  been  in  the  act  of  springing  over  a  strong  fence,  such  as  a  stone  wall, 
he  has  hit  upon  the  scent  of  the  birds  lying  close  to  it  on  the  other  side,  and  he  has 
then  been  seen  to  halt  suddenly  on  the  top  of  it  with  his  four  feet  all  collected 
together,  and  his  body  almost  all  doubled  up,  thus  fixing  himself  like  a  statue. 

272.   What  is  "scent?" 

It  is  the  odour,  or  effluvium,  which  is  constantly  issuing  from 
every  animal,  and  especially  when  that  animal  is  in  more  than 
usual  exercise.  In  a  state  of  heat  or  excitement,  the  pores  of  the 
skin  appear  relaxed,  and  a  fluid  or  aqueous  vapour  is  secreted 
which,  escaping  in  large  quantities,  adheres  to  the  persons  or 
substances  upon  which  it  falls,  and  is  particularly  capable  of 
impressing  the  olfactory  nerves.* 

273.  That  an  animal  emitting  odorous  exhalations  should  leave  behind  it  a 
Bomewhat  abiding  scent,  is  no  matter  of  surprise  when  we  consider  what  some  solid 
substances  are  capable  of  doing,  and  that  the  odorous  excretions  of  animals 
derive  their  property  from  minute  particles  of  similar  solids.  Some  substances 
possess  very  strong  odorous  properties,  without  losing  weight  in  any  appreciable 
degree  by  the  diffusion  of  their  particles  through  the  air.  This  is  the  case,  for 

*  "  Youatt  on  the  Dog." 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  89 


To  erery  shrub  the  warm  effluvia  cling, 
Hang  on  the  grass,  im pregnant  earth  and  skies, 
With  nostrils  op'ning  wide,  o'er  1  .11  and  dale,    . 
The  vig'rous  hounds  pursue." — SOMERVILLE. 

example,  -with  musk,  which  is  obtained  from  the  musk-deer,  a  grain  of  which  has 
oeen  kept  freely  exposed  to  the  air  of  a  room,  whose  doors  and  windows  were  kept 
constantly  open  for  a  period  of  ten  years,  during  which  time  the  air,  thus  continually 
changed,  was  completely  impregnated  with  the  odour  of  musk  ;  and  yet,  at  the 
end  of  that  time,  the  particle  was  found  to  have  not  perceptibly  diminished  ir 
weight. 

274.  Why  is  a  moist  atmosphere  the  best  for  scent  ? 
Because  moisture   not   only   imbibes    and    holds   the   peculiar 

matters  yielding  the  odour,  but  presents  it  to  the  nerves  of  smell, 
which  are  spread  out  upon  the  internal  chambers  of  the  nose  in 
that  state  which  is  best  adapted  to  impress  the  nerves. 

275.  We  know  that  just  before  rains  set  in,  when  the  atmosphere  is 
humid,  but  not  ivet,  drains   give   forth   unpleasant  smells.     Certain 
bodies  possess  the  property  of  exciting  sensations  of  a  peculiar  nature, 
which  cannot  be  perceived  by  the  organs  of  taste  or  touch,  but  seem  to 
depend  upon  the  diffusion  of  the  particles  of  the  substances  through 
the  surrounding  air  in  a  state  of  extreme  minuteness.     As  the  solubility 
of  a  substance  in  liquid  seems  a  necessary  condition  of  its  exciting  the 
sense  of  taste,  so  does  its  volatility  or  tendency  to  a  vaporous  state 
appear  requisite  for  its  possession  of  odorous  particles. 

276.  Why  is  a  wet  day  unfavourable  for  scent  ? 

Because  then  the  odorous  effluvia  becomes,  as  it  were, "  drowned  " 
by  excess  of  moisture.  It  is  absorbed  and  neutralised  by  water, 
instead  of  being  suspended  in  vapour.  We  know  that  persons  having 
colds,  in  which  condition  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  nose  are 
in  an  extreme  state  of  humidity,  lose  their  power  of  smell. 

277.  Why,  when  the  ground  is  hard  and  the  air  dry,  is  there 
little  scent  ? 

Because  the  vapour  which  serves  as  the  rnenstrum  of  com 
munication  is  absent, 

278.  Wliy  does  scent  sometimes  lie  breast  high  ? 

Because  sometimes  a  stratum  of  humid  air  lies  over  the  earth  a 
little  above  the  surface.  This  arises  from  the  difference  between 
the  temperature  of  the  earth  and  the  air,  and  is  frequently  made 


THE    REASON    WHY 


1  Rut  the  milder  ayre  with  season  moderate, 
Gently  attempered,  and  disposed  so  well 
That  still  it  breathed  forth  sweet  and  holesome  smell."— SPENSER. 


manifest  by  the  "  creeping  mists  "  of  morning  and  evening.  The 
s  *.ent  is  most  manifest  where  a  favourable  condition  of  humidity 
prevails,  and  hence  it  is  strongest  in  the  upper  stratum. 

2?9.   IVTiy  does  scent  rarely  lie  with  a  north  or  east  wind  ? 

Because  those  winds  being  generally  dry,  and  frequently  cold, 
are  unfavourable  to  the  retention  of  scent,  which  becomes  diffused 
and  weakened  instead  of  retained,  as  it  were,  in  solution. 

280.  The  different  manners  or  attitudes  in  which  the  dog  runs  afford  satisfactory 
and  pleasing  illustrations  of  the  nature  of  the  scent.  Sometimes  they  will  be  seen 
galloping  with  their  noses  in  the  air,  as  if  their  game  had  flown  away,  and  an  hour 
or  two  afterwards  every  one  of  them  will  have  his  muzzle  on  the  ground.  The 
condition  of  the  atmosphere  has  changed,  and  the  scent  has  risen  or  fallen  m 
proportion.* 

281.   Why  is  scent  generally  good  when  the  wind  is  southerly  t 
Because  the  south  wind  is  generally  humid  and  warm.     For  * 

similar  reason,  a  westerly  wind  is,  next  to  the  south  wind,  in  its 

favourable  conditions. 

282.  In  the  evening  when  dews  are  forming,  we  recognise  the  fragrance  of  flowers 
and  the  odour  of  sweet  hay.  This  is  a  sufficient  confirmation  that  a  moderate 
degreo  of  humidity  is  best  adapted  to  the  transmission  of  scents. 

283.  Why,  when  cob-webs  hang  on  the  bushes,  is  scent  seldom, 
good  ? 

Because  spiders  spread  out  their  webs  in  dry  air,  and  gather 
them  in  when  it  is  moist  or  wet.  Therefore,  when  the  webs  are  out 
it  is  a  sure  indication  that  the  dryness  of  the  air  is  unfavourable 
f  o  scent. 

284.  Why  in  a  hard  rain,  if  the  air  is  mild,  will  scent  sometimes 
be  very  good? 

Because  after  a  heavy  rain  the  air  is  left  in  a  dry  state,  ready 
immediately  to  absorb  vapour.  The  mildness  of  the  temperature 
at  once  causes  evaporation,  and  produces  the  same  atmospheric 
condition  immediately  after  rain  as  generally  occurs  before  it*. 

•  "  Youatt  on  the  Dog." 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  91 


•  '  Tis  raging  noon  ;   and,  vertical,  the  sun 
Darts  on  the  head  direct  his  forceful  rays, 
O'er  heaven  and  earth,  far  as  the  ranging  eye 
Can  sweep." — THOMSON. 


235.   Why  do  sudden  storms  destroy  scent  ? 

Because  they  rapidly  change  the  conditions  upon  which  it 
depends.  Storms  of  rain  produce  a  superabundance  of  wet  ;  storms 
of  wind  dry  the  air,  and  disperse  the  effluvia  ;  storms  of  hail  and 
snow  produce  cold,  and,  if  succeeded  by  an  immediate  thaw,  result 
in  a  wet  surface,  with  sluggish  evaporation  ;  but  if  no  thaw  occurs, 
then  a  cold  dry  air  rests  over  the  earth. 

286.  Wliy  are  sunshiny  days  not  good  for  scent  ? 

Because  then  there  is  a  rapid  movement  of  the  vapours  of  the 
earth,  from  the  surface  to  a  considerable  elevation  in  the  atmo 
sphere.  Tins  may  be  observed  in  what  is  called  the  "  steaming  "  of 
the  earth  on  a  hot  day.  The  scent  is,  in  such  a  condition,  borne 
away,  and  dispersed  above  the  reach  of  the  dogs  employed  in 
the  hunt. 

287.  Why  is  a  warm  day  without  sunshine  good  for  scent  ? 
Because  then  the  evaporation  from  the  earth's  surface  proceeds 

gradually.  Instead  of  rising  rapidly  under  the  glaring  heat  of  the 
sun,  the  vapours  lie  for  a  time  upon  the  surface ;  and  when  the 
Tapours  lie  the  scent  lies  also. 

288.  Why  does  scent  lie  badly  upon  fallows  and  beaten  roads  ? 
Because  there  is  nothing  to  detain  it ;  every  blade  of  grass,  or 

moss,  or  frond  of  fern,  serves  to  give  stillness  to  the  stratum  of  air 
immediately  over  the  earth's  surface.  But  where  there  are  no  such 
checks  to  atmospheric  motion,  every  impulse  of  the  air  spreads  far 
and  wide,  and  disperses  all  local  exhalations. 

289.  Why  is  scent  frequently  good  by  hedgerows,  when  bad  in 
the  coppice  or  in  the  open  field  ? 

Because  the  coppice  may  be  too  wet,  and  the  scent  be  drowned  ; 
and  the  open  field,  being  quickly  dried  by  the  sun,  or  swept  by  a 
brisk  wind,  the  scent  may  be  dispersed ;  while  the  hedgerow, 
sheltered  from  the  wind,  and  partially  so  from  the  sun,  may 
preserve  the  conditions  required. 


THE     REASON    Will    : 


And,  all  -within,  it  full  of  wvndings  is 

And  hidden  wayes,  that  scarce  a  hound  by  smell 

Can  follow  out  "those  false  footsteps  of  his." — SPEXSER. 


290.  Why  do  dogs  of  different  breeds  exhibit  a  peculiar  faculty 
for  particular  scents  ? 

Those  peculiarities  are  dependent  partly  upon  organisation  and 
upon  training.  The  short  thick  nose  of  the  beagle  is  adapted  for  a 
ground-scent,  while  the  longer  nose  of  the  setter  is  better  adapted 
for  catching  the  impregnated  air. 

In  the  breaking-in  of  dogs  it  is  necessary  to  correct  their  falso 
points  a.t  first ;  they  will  stand  at  larks,  blackbirds,  thrushes,  and, 
indeed,  at  anything  emitting  an  unusual  odour.  By  discipline  they 
are  taught  to  disregard  all  scents  but  those  of  their  particular 
game.  The  foxhound,  well  broken-in,  will  rarely  challenge  at  the 
scent  of  the  hare,  nor  will  he  even  change  his  fox. 

291.  The  scent  of  different  animals  possesses  very  various  degrees  of  pungency 
and  distinctive  qualities.  Scents  that  are  appreciable  by  some  animals  are  im 
perceptible  by  others :  thus  the  exhalations  of  the  fox,  badger,  or  pole-cat,  are 
obvious  to  man  ;  but  those  of  the  hare,  rabbit,  and  winged  game,  to  their  enemies 
only.  The  animal  effluvia  themselves  differ,  not  only  according  to  the  variety  of 
the  animal  they  escape  from,  but  also  as  the  exhalations  of  each  animal  vary  with 
circumstances.  The  hunted  stag  is  never  changed — the  hunted  fox  and  the  hunted 
hare  may  be  changed  many  times.  "  The  Country  Squire "  on  the  same  head 
remarks : — "  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  there  is  no  small  accidental  differ 
ence  in  the  very  particles  of  scent ;  I  mean,  that  they  are  stronger,  sweeter,  or 
more  distinguishable  at  one  time  than  at  another,  and  that  this  difference  is  found 
not  only  in  diverse,  but  often  in  the  same  individual  creature,  according  to  the 
changes  of  the  air  or  the  soil,  as  well  as  of  her  own  motions  or  conditions.  That 
there  is  a  different  scent  in  other  animals  of  the  same  species  is  evident  from 
draught  hounds,  which  were  formerly  made  use  of  for  tracking  and  pursuing 
thieves  and  deer-stealers  ;  or  rather  from  any  common  cur  or  spaniel,  which  will 
hunt  out  their  masters  or  their  master's  horse  distinctly  from  all  others  ;  and  that 
it  is  the  same  with  the  hare  is  no  less  visible  with  the  old  beag'es,  which  will  not 
readily  change  for  a  fresh  one,  unless  she  starts  in  view,  or  unless  a  fault  happens 
that  puts  them  in  confusion,  and  inclines  them  in  despair  to  take  up  with  the  next 
they  can  come  by."  Had  the  Country  Squire  been  a  stag-hunter  also,  he  would 
have  noted  this  peculiarity  of  the  scent  of  the  hunted  stag,  which,  as  already  ob 
served,  is  never  lost,  though  scores  of  this  kind  are  near.  This  veteran  judiciously 
remarks  on  the  nature  of  scent,  that  many  circumstances  may  change  it ;  according 
to  his  opinion,  it  is  at  one  time  composed  of  very  fine  particles,  and  at  another 
of  particles  equally  gross,  and  that  this  difference  Is  frequently  occasioned  by 
accidental  circumstances.  Thus,  he  says,  the  coursing  of  a  cur  dog,  which 
may  follow  the  hare  during  the  run,  will  :ommonly  produce  a  different  effluvium 
to  tne  rest,  and  a  fault  is  therefore  almost  always  the  consequence  of  tUis 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  93 

"  It  was  a  comfort,  too,  to  see 

Those  dogs  that  from  him  ne'er  would  rove, 
And  always  eyed  him  reverently, 
With  glances  of  depending  love."— HALLAM. 

&co:<ient  in  the  hare  chase.  "The  hounds,"  he  says,  "must  be  again  put 
on  the  scent  before  they  will  acknowledge  it  for  their  game;  ttie  reason 
is,  the  changing  the  motion  causes  one  in  the  perspiring  parh-.les.  The 
alterations  of  scent  in  a  yielding  hare  are  less  frequently  productive  of  faults, 
because  they  are  more  gradual,  and  insensibly  grow  smaller ;  but  that  alterations 
there  are  every  dog-boy  knows,  by  the  old  hounds  pressing  forward  with  greater 
earnestness  as  the  hare  is  nearer  her  end.* 

292.  Why  are  foxes  that  are  found  early  in  the  day  easily 
caught ? 

Because,  as  they  feed  by  night,  they  are  incapable  of  fast  running 
before  their  nocturnal  meal  has  been  digested. 

293.  Why  is  the  Newfoundland  dog  of  greater  service  to  man 
than  any  other,  especially  as  a   water-dog? 

Because  he  not  only  displays  great  sagacity  and  willingness  in 
assisting  drowning  persons,  but  he  is  also  provided  with  semi- 
webbed  feet,  which  make  him  a  good  swimmer. 

234.  Innumerable  instances  of  Newfoundland  dogs  having  saved  human  life  are 
on  record.  The  following  is  a  case  in  point : — A  person  was  once  travelling  in 
Holland,  accompanied  by  a  Newfoundland  dog.  Not  taking  proper  heed  of  his 
steps  on  an  evening  walk  along  a  high  bank  by  the  side  of  one  of  those  deep  canals 
common  in  that  country,  his  foot  slipped,  and  he  fell  into  the  water ;  and,  being 
unable  to  swim,  he  was  soon  deprived  of  his  senses.  In  the  mean  time,  the  dog  no 
sooner  discovered  the  danger  to  which  his  master  was  exposed,  than  he  was  in  the 
water,  and  engaged  in  the  struggle  to  rescue  him  from  peril.  A  party  at  a  distance 
saw  the  sagacious  creature  at  one  moment  pushing,  and  at  another  dragging  the 
body  towards  a  small  creek,  where  at  length  he  succeeded  in  landing  his  charge, 
and  placing  it  as  far  from  the  water  as  possible.  This  being  done,  the  dog  just 
shook  himself,  and  then  licked  the  face  and  hands  of  his  apparently  dead  master. 
The  body  being  conveyed  to  a  neighbouring  house,  the  efforts  to  restore  animation 
were  successful.  From  the  marks  of  teeth  on  the  body,  it  appeared  that  the  dog 
had  taken  his  first  hold  on  the  shoulder ;  but  finding  that  this  did  not  keep  the  head 
out  of  water,  the  instinct  of  the  animal  prompted  him  to  change  his  grasp  from  the 
shoulder  to  the  neck,  by  which  he  was  enabled  to  raise  the  head,  and  to  keep  it  so 
for  a  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile. 

295.    Wliy  does  a  dog  toss  his  head  about  in  such  a  variety  oj 
altitudes  when  endeavouring  to  masticate  a  tough  substance? 
Because,  owing  to  a  Hunted  power  of  the  mouth,  he  can  divide 

•  Blain-'s  "  T1«Cvclopaedia  of  Rural   Sports." 


94  THE    REASON    WHY 


"When  I  frown,  they  hang  their  most  dejected  heads, 
Like  fearful  shecphoundfi  ;  show  'em  a  crust  of  bread, 
They'll  saint  me  presently,  and  skip  like  asses."  —  BEAUMONT  and  FLETCHER. 

a  portion  of  tough  matter  only  by  repeated  vertical  bites  ;  but  it 
he  has  much  labour  with  the  substance,  and  his  hunger  urges  him 
to  eat  it,  he  may  be  seen  shifting  his  head,  now  higher  at  one  side 
and  then  higher  at  the  other  alternately,  in  order  to  bring  the 
whole  under  his  teeth  ;  and  he  also  flings  his  head  upwards  and 
downwards,  and  gives  a  snap,  so  that  the  lower  jaw  may  bite  with 
a  momentum,  while  the  substance  to  be  divided  rests  against  the 
teeth  of  the  upper  jaw. 


296.  Why  may  it  be  inferred  that  the  habits  of  the  shepherd*  * 
dog  are  the  result  of  instruction  rather  than  instinct  ? 

Because  the  actions  of  these  dogs  appear  to  be  governed  by  an 
intelligence  nearly  allied  to  human  reason  ;  and  what  is  much  too 
artificial,  and  too  greatly  opposed  to  the  nature  of  the  animal,  is  to 
be  attributed  to  instruction. 


297.  Very  different  propensities  are  found  in  various  breeds  of  dogs,  and  they  are 
always  such  as  are  particularly  suited  to  the  purposes  to  which  each  of  these  breeds 
has  long  been  and  is  still  applied.  No  one  can  suppose  tl\at  nature  has  gwt-n  to 
these  several  varieties  of  the  same  species  such  very  different  instinctive  propensities, 
and  that  each  of  these  breeds  should  possess  those  that  are  best  suited  for  the  uses 
to  which  they  are  respectively  applied.  It  certainly  seems  more  probable  that  these 
breeds,  having  been  long  treated  as  they  now  are,  and  applied  to  the  same  uses,  should 
have  acquired  habits  by  experience  and  instruction  which,  in  course  of  time,  have 
become  hereditary.  In  short,  that  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  propensities  that 
are  generally  supposed  to  be  instinctive,  are  not  implanted  in  animals  by  nature,  but 
are  the  result  of  long  experience,  acquired  and  accumulated  through  many  genera 
tions,  so  as  in  course  of  time  to  assume  the  character  of  instinct. 


298.  Sow  may  dogs  be  taught  to  distinguish  playing  cards,  and 
to  pick  them  out  from  the  pack  correctly  as  they  are  named  ? 

The  dog  is  taught  to  do  this  by  frequently  offering  him  food  on 
a  card  he  is  unacquainted  with,  after  which  they  send  him  to  find 
it  out  from  the  rest,  and  he  never  mistakes.  The  habit  of  profiting 
by  that  discovery  and  receiving  caresses  enables  him  by  degrees  to 
grow  acquainted  with  each  particular  card- 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  05 


'•  So  true,  so  brave,  a  lamb  at  home, 
A  lion  in  the  chase." 


299.  Wliy  do  dogs  betray  fear  when  a  person  who  has  a  lamt 
and  stooping  gait  approaches  ? 

Because  the  action  which  the  lame  person  uses  in  walking  has  a 
close  resemblance  to  the  attitude  of  a  person  etcoping  to  pick  up 
a  stone. 

300.  Why  does  a  dog  generally  turn  round  three  or  four  times 
before  he  lies  down  to  sleep  ? 

It  is  supposed  that  this  singular  and  almost  invariable  practice 
is  one  of  the  dog's  natural  instincts,  altered  or  modified  to  his 
domesticated  life  ;  for,  when  in  a  wild  state,  he  takes  up  his  night's 
quarters  in  a  field  of  tall  withered  grass  or  among  reeds  or  rushes, 
thus  wheeling  round  he  separates  the  vegetation  in  the  spot  where 
he  is  to  lie,  and  forms  a  bed  with  overhanging  curtains  all 
round  for  his  protection  and  warmth. 

301.  Why  should  the  treatment  of  dogs  be  regulated  more  by 
moral  than  by  brute  force  ? 

Because  the  nervous  system  in  this  creature  is  largely  developed, 
exerting  an  influence  over  all  his  actions  and  giving  character  to 
the  species.  The  brain  of  the  dog  is  seldom  in  repose ;  even 
when  asleep  the  twitching  of  the  legs,  and  the  suppressed  sounds, 
inform  us  that  the  dog  is  dreaming.  No  animal  is  more 
actuated  by  the  power  of  imagination.  To  diseases  of  cerebral  or 
spinal  character  it  is  more  liable  that  any  other  domesticated 
a'himal.  Its  very  bark  is  symbolical  of  temperament,  and  its 
mode  of  attack  energetically  declares  the  excitability  of  its  nature. 
The  most  fearful  of  all  diseases  to  which  it  is  exposed  (rabies)  is 
essentially  of  a  nervous  character.  Delirium  usually  precedes 
its  death,  and  nervous  excitability  is  the  common  accompaniment 
of  most  of  its  disorders.  This  peculiar  temperament  of  the  animal 
at  once  suggests  how  much  may  be  done  by  gentle  treatment ; 
while  on  the  other  hand  it  makes  known  to  us  the  fact  that  words 
spoken  to  a  dog  in  a  harsh  and  unkind  tone,  and  the  inflictioD 
of  blows  or  kicks,  may  occasion  indescribable  pain. 


THE    REASON    WHY  . 


:  The  dog,  loud  barking,  'mid  the  glittering  rocks, 
Hunts,  where  his  master  points,  the  intercepted  flocks." — WORDS-WORTH. 


302.  Why  have  dogs  and  cats  great  difficulty  in  masticating 
vegetable  substances? 

Because,  being  carnivorous  animals,  their  teeth  and  the  motion 
of  their  jaws  is  ill-adapted  to  the  mastication  of  vegetable  sub 
stances,  which  they  sometimes  eat  when  domesticated. 

303.  As  even  those  carnivorous  animals  which  are  best  adapted  for  living  upon 
vegetable  food,  and  live  most  upon  it,  have  no  grinding  motion  of  the  jaws,  they 
divide  vegetable  substances  with  much  more  difficulty  than  those  races  which  have 
the  grinding  motion  and  the  short  teeth,  or  true  molars ;  and,  as  the  number  of  com 
paratively  flattened  teeth  diminishes,  the  difficulty  increases.  One  case  of  this 
gradation  may  be  seen  in  the  domestic  dog  and  cat.  The  dog  is  the  less  carnivorous 
of  the  two,  and  as  he  uses  the  mouth  only  in  the  capture  and  killing  of  his  prey, 
he  has  much  more  powerful  and  varied  action  of  the  neck.  He  can  divide  a  portion 
of  tough  vegetable  matter,  as  for  instance  a  crust  of  bread,  only  by  repeated  vertical 
bites;  but  if  he  has  much  labour  with  the  substance,  and  his  hunger  is  strong 
enough  to  induce  him  to  eat  it,  he  may  be  seen  shifting  his  head,  now  higher  at  the 
one  side,  then  higher  at  the  other,  alternately,  in  order  to  bring  the  whole  under 
his  teeth,  and  he  also  flings  the  head  upwards  or  downwards,  and  gives  a  snap,  so 
that  the  lower  jaw  may  bite  with  a  momentum,  while  the  substance  to  be  divided 
rests  against  the  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw.  The  cat  has  a  great  deal  more  trouble  in 
this  imperfect  mastication,  as  she  cannot  snap  and  derive  advantage  from  the 
momentum  of  the  jaw  as  the  dog  does ;  thus  with  her  the  division  of  hard  vegetable 
food,  so  as  to  prepare  it  for  the  stomach,  is  no  easy  matter. 


"  The  dog,"  says  Mr.  Youatt,  "  is  the  only  animal  that  is  capable  of  disinterested 
affection.  He  is  the  only  one  that  regards  the  human  being  as  his  companion, 
a:\d  lollows  him  as  his  friend  ;  the  only  one  that  seems  to  possess  a  natural  desire 
to  be  useful  to  him,  and  from  a  spontaneous  impulse  attaches  himself  to  man.  We 
take  the  bridle  from  the  mouth  of  the  horse,  and  turn  him  free  into  the  pasture, 
and  he  testifies  his  joy  in  his  partially  recovered  liberty.  We  exact  frcm  the  dog 
the  service  that  is  required  of  him,  and  he  still  follows  us.  He  solcits  to  be 
continued  as  our  companion  and  our  friend.  Many  an  expressive  action  tells  us 
how  much  he  is  pleased  and  thankful.  He  shares  our  abundance,  and  he  ia 
content  with  the  scantiest  and  most  humble  fare.  He  loves  us  while  -iving,  and 
has  been  known  to  pine  away  on  the  grave  of  his  master." 

A  few  anecdotes  of  this  faithful  animal  will  be  interesting : — 

TYKE  THE   FIRE   DOG. 

304.  A  few  years  ago  the  public  were  amused  with  an  account  given  in  a  newspap« 
•f  a  dog  which  possessed  the  strange  fancy  of  attending  all  the  firea  that  occurred  io 


BAT-URAL  HISTORY.  S7 


"  That  instinct  suggests  for  them  everywhere  what  is  most  for 
their  safety,  and  makes  them  many  times  sagacious  above  our 
apprehension." — Mo  HE. 


the  metropolis.  The  discovery  of  this  predilection  was  made  by  a  gentleman 
residing  a  few  miles  from  town,  who  was  called  up  in  the  middle  of  the  night  by 
the  intelligence  that  the  premises  adjoining  his  house  of  business  were  on  fire. 
"  The  removal  of  my  books  and  papers,"  said  he,  in  telling  the  story,  "  of  course 
claimed  my  attention  ;  yet,  notwithstanding  this,  and  the  bustle  which  prevailed, 
my  eye  every  now  and  then  rested  on  a  dog  which,  during  the  hottest  progress  of 
the  conflagration,  I  could  not  help  noticing  running  about,  and  apparently  taking 
a  deep  interest  in  what  was  going  on  ;  contriving  to  keep  himself  out  of  everybody's 
way,  and  yet  always  present  amidst  the  thickest  of  the  stir.  When  the  fire  was  got 
under,  and  I  had  leisure  to  look  about  me,  I  again  observed  the  dog,  which,  with 
the  firemen,  appeared  to  be  resting  from  duty,  and  was  led  to  make  some  enquiries 
respecting  him.  '  Is  this  your  dog,  my  friend  ? '  said  I  to  a  fireman.  '  No,  Sir,' 
answered  he  ;  'it  does  not  belong  to  me,  or  to  any  one  in  particular.  We  call  him 
the  firemen's  dog.'  '  The  fLreuieu's  dog ! '  I  replied.  '  Why  so  ;  has  he  no 
master?'  'No,  Sir,' rejoined  the  fireman,  'he  calls  none  of  us  master^  though 
we  are  all  of  us  willing  enough  to  give  him  a  night's  lodging  and  a  pennyworth  of 
meat.  But  he  won't  stay  long  with  any  of  us.  His  delight  is  to  be  at  all  the  fires 
in  London ;  and,  far  or  near,  we  generally  find  him  on  the  road  as  we  are  going 
along,  aud  sometimes,  if  it  is  out  of  town,  we  give  him  a  lift.  I  don't  think  there 
has  been  a  fire  for  these  two  or  three  years  past  which  he  has  not  been  at.' 

"  This  communication  was  so  extraordinary  that  I  found  it  difficult  to  believe  the 
story  until  it  was  confirmed  by  the  concurrent  testimony  of  several  other  firemen. 
None  of  them,  however,  were  able  to  give  any  account  of  the  early  habits  of  the  dog, 
or  to  offer  any  explanation  of  the  circumstances  which  led  to  this  singular 
propensity. 

"  Some  time  afterwards  I  was  again  called  up  in  the  night  to  a  fire  in  the  ^village 
in  which  I  resided  (Camber well,  in  Surrey),  and  to  my  surprise  here  I  again  met 
with  'the  firemen's  dog,'  still  alive  and  well,  pursuing,  with  the  same  apparent 
interest  and  satisfaction,  the  exhibition  of  that  which  seldom  fails  to  bring  with  it 
disaster  and  misfortune,  oftentimes  loss  of  life  and  ruin.  Still  he  called  no  man 
master,  disdained  to  receive  bed  or  board  from  the  same  hand  more  than  a  night  or 
two  at  a  time,  nor  could  the  firemen  trace  out  his  resting-place." 

Such  was  the  account  of  this  interesting  animal,  as  it  appeared  in  the  newspapers, 
to  which  were  shortly  afterwards  appended  several  circumstances  communicated  by 
a  fireman  at  one  of  the  police  offices.  A  magistrate  having  asked  him  whether  it 
was  a  fact  that  the  dog  was  present  at  most  of  the  fires  that  occurred  in  the  metro 
polis,  the  fireman  replied  that  he  never  knew  "  Tyke,"  as  he  was  called,  to  be  absent 
from  a  fire  upon  any  occasion  that  he  (the  fireman)  attended  himself.  The  magis- 
"trate  eaid  the  dog  must  have  an  extraordinary  predilection  for  fires  He  theu 
asked  what  length  of  time  he  had  been  known  to  possess  that  propensity.  The 
fireman  replied  that  he  knew  Tyke  for  the  last  nine  years  ;  and,  although  he  was 
getting  old,  yet  the  moment  the  engines  were  about,  Tyke  was  to  be  seen  as  active 
as  ever,  running  off  in  the  direction  of  the  fire.  The  magistrate  inquired  whether 
the  dug  liked  auy  particular  fireman.  The  fireman  replied  that  Tyke  liked  on* 
5 


THE    REASON   WHY: 


But  bold  Tydide?  to  the  rescue  goes, 

A  single  -warrior  'midst  a  host  of  foes." — POPE. 


fcreinan  as  well  as  another.  He  had  no  particular  favourites,  bat  passed  his  time 
amongst  them  ;  sometimes  going  to  the  house  of  one,  and  then  to  another,  and  off 
to  a  third  when  he  was  tired.  Day  or  night,  it  was  all  the  same  to  him  ;  if  a  tire 
broke  out,  there  was  he  in  the  midst  of  the  bustle,  running  from  one  engine  to 
another,  anxiously  looking  after  the  firemen ;  and,  although  pressed  upon  hy 
crowds,  yet,  from  his  dexterity,  lie  always  escaped  accidents,  only  now  and  then 
getting  a  ducking  from  the  engines,  which  he  rather  liked  than  otherwise.  The 
magistrate  said  that  Tyke  was  a  most  extraordinary  animal ;  and,  having  expressed 
a  wish  to  see  him,  he  was  shortly  afterwards  exhibited  at  the  office,  and  some  other 
peculiarities  re&pecting  him  were  related.  There  was  nothing  at  all  particular  in 
the  appearance  of  the  dog.  He  was  a  rough-looking,  small  animal,  of  the  terrier 
breed,  and  seemed  to  be  in  excellent  condition — no  doubt  from  the  care  taken  of  him 
by  the  firemen  belonging  to  the  different  companies.  There  was  some  difficulty 
experienced  in  bringing  him  to  the  office,  as  he  did  not  much  relish  going  any ' 
distance  from  where  the  firemen  are  to  be  found,  except  in  cases  of  attending  with 
them  at  a  conflagration,  and  then  distance  was  of  nc  consequence.  It  was  found 
necessary  to  use  stratagem  for  the  purpose.  A  fireman  commenced  running  ;  Tyke, 
accustomed  to  follow  upon  such  occasions,  set  out  after  him ;  bait  this  person  having 
slackened  his  pace  on  the  way,  the  sagacious  animal,  knowing  there  was  no  fire, 
turned  back,  and  it  was  necessary  to  carry  him  to  the  office.* 

The  Author  recently  saw  a  fire-dog  (but  is  not  aware  whether  it  is  the  same  as 
described  by  Mr.  Jesse  in  the  above  narrative,  though  he  thinks  not  from  the 
''escription}  ;  it  wore  a  collar,  bearing  a  suitable  inscription,  recording  its  feats  in 
connexion  with  various  fires.  This  dog  would  run  up  the  steps  of  the  fire-escapes^ 
enter  rooms,  and,  crouching  along  the  floor,  its  head  below  the  clouds  of  smoke, 
•would  find  out  persons  lying  in  their  beds  in  a  half-suffocated  state,  and  then,  setting 
up  a  loud  howl,  would  inform  the  firemen.  At  the  time  the  Author  saw  it,  the  dog 
Buttered  from  falls,  and  wounds  caused  by  the  wheels  of  fire-escapes  and  engines* 
passing  over  it.  It  was  no  longer  able  to  ascend  the  steps  of  the  fire-escape  ;  but, 
Whenever  a  door  was  opened,  it  rushed  in  and  ascended  the  stairs,  and  explore* 
•very  part  of  the  house  to  which  it  could  find  access. 

A  PIECE    OF  MONEY   SINGUIARLY   RESTORED  BY   A   DOG   TO   HIS 
MASTER. 

305.  A  gentleman  in  Suffolk,  on  an  excursion  with  liis  friend,  was  attended  by  • 
Newfoundland  dog,  which  soon  became  the  subject  of  conversation.  The  roastes, 
after  a  warm  eulogium  upon  the  perfection  of  his  canine  favourite,  assured  hii 
companion  that  he  would,  upon  receiving  the  order,  return  and  fetch  any  article 
he  should  leave  behind,  from  any  distance.  To  confirm  this  assertion,  a  marked 
shilling  was  put  under  a  large  square  stone  by  the  side  of  the  road,  being  first 
ihown  to  the  dog.  The  gentlemen  then  rode  for  three  miles,  when  the  doft 

•  Je**e'»  "  Anecdotes  of  Dogs."  — <; 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


So  scented  the  grim  feature,  and  upturn'd 
His  nostrils  wide  into  the  inurkie  air, 
Sagacious  of  his  quarry  from  so  far." — MILTON. 


received  a  signal  from  his  master  to  return  for  the  shilling  he  had  seen  put  under 
the  stone.  The  dog  turned  back ;  the  gentlemen  rode  on  and  reached  home,  but  to 
their  surprise  and  disappointment  the  hitherto  faithful  messenger  did  not  return 
during  the  day.  It  afterwards  appeared  that  he  had  gone  to  the  place  where  the 
shilling  was  deposited,  but  the  stone  being  too  large  for  his  strength  to  remove, 
he  had  stayed  howling  at  the  place  till  two  horsemen  riding  by,  and  attracted  by 
his  seeming  distress,  stopped  to  look  at  him,  when  one  of  them  alighting,  removed 
the  stone,  and  seeing  the  shilling,  put  it  into  his  pocket,  not  at  the  time  conceiving 
it  to  be  the  object  of  , the  dog's  search.  The  dog  followed  their  horses  for  several 
miles,  remained  undisturbed  in  the  room  where  they  supped,  followed  the  chamber 
maid  into  the  bedchamber,  and  secreted  himself  under  one  of  the  beds.  The 
possessor  of  the  shilling  hung  his  trousers  upon  a  nail  by  the  bed-side  ;  but  when 
the  travellers  were  both  asleep,  the  dog  took  them  in  his  mouth,  and  leaping  out 
of  the  window,  which  was  left  open  on  account  of  the  sultry  heat,  reachod  the 
house  of  his  master  at  four  o'clock  in  the  morning,  with  the  prize  he  had  made 
free  with,  in  the  pocket  of  which  were  found  a  watch  and  money,  that  were 
returned  upon  being  advertised,  when  the  whole  mystery  was  mutually  unravelled 
to  the  admiration  of  all  the  parties.* 


MEMORY   AND   GRATITUDE   OF  A   DOG. 

306.  Mr.  Youatt  relates  the  following  anecdote  of  a  Newfoundland  dog,  who  was 
greatly  attached  to  him.  He  says,  as  it  became  inconvenient  to  him  to  keep  the  dog, 
he  gave  him  to  one  who  he  knew  would  treat  him  kindly.  Four  years  passed,  and 
he  had  not  seen  him,  when  one  day  as  he  was  walking  towards  Kingston,  and  had 
arrived  at  the  brow  of  the  hill  where  Jerry  Abershaw's  gibbet  then  stood,  he  met 
Carlo  and  his  master.  The  dog  recollected  Mr.  Youatt  in  a  moment,  and  they 
made  much  of  each  other.  His  master,  after  a  little  chat,  proceeded  towards 
Wandsworth,  and  Carlo,  as  in  duty  bound,  followed  him.  Mr.  Youatt  had  not, 
however,  got  half-way  down  the  hill,  when  the  dog  was  again  by  his  side,  lowly 
but  deeply  growling,  and  every  hair  bristling.  On  looking  about  he  saw  two 
ill-looking  fellows  making  their  way  through  the  bushes  which  occupied  the 
angular  space  between  Roehampton  and  Wandsworth  roads.  Their  intention  was 
scarcely  questionable,  and,  indeed,  a  week  or  two  before,  he  had  narrowly  escaped 
from  two  miscreants  like  them.  "I  can  scarcely  say,"  proceeds  Mr.  Youatt, 
"  what  I  felt,  for  presently  one  of  the  scoundrels  emerged  from  the  bushes,  not 
twenty  yards  from  me  ;  he  no  sooner  saw  my  companion,  and  heard  his  growling, 
the  loudness  and  depth  of  which  were  fearfully  increasing,  than  he  retreated,  and 
I  saw  no  more  of  him  or  his  associate.  My  gallant  defender  accompanied  me  to 
the  direction  post  at  the  bottom  of  the  hill,  and  there,  with  many  a  mutual  and 
honest  greeting,  we  parted,  and  he  bounded  away  to  overtake  his  rightful  owner. 
We  never  met  again  ;  but  1  need  not  say  that  1  often  thought  of  him  with  admira 
tion  and  gratitude." 

•  Jesse's  "  Anecdotes  of  Dogs." 


100  THE   REASON   WHY. 


At  Bruin  flies  the  slavering,  snarling  cur, 

But  only  fills  his  famished  jaws  with  fur."— FALCONER. 


A   DOG   CONSTABLE. 

307.  Mr.  Tewes,  who  keeps  a  restaurant  in  William-street,  New  York,  has  a  large 
Newfoundland  dog,  a  finer  specimen  of  his  kind  than  is  ordinarily  met  with. 
Among  his  other  wonderful  marks  of  intelligence,  we  witnessed  this  a  day  or  two 
ago.  A  gentleman  entered  the  restaurant  holding  by  a  cord  a  dog  which  served 
as  watch  on  board  a  ship.  While  in  the  place,  the  gentleman  supposed  the  dog 
was  safe,  released  his  hold  upon  the  string.  The  door  was  opened  while  the 
parties  were  in  conversation,  and  the  dog  made  his  escape.  Mr.  Tewes  said  to  his 
Newfoundland,  "Go  bring  him  back,  Sir."  The  dog  obeyed  the  mandate,  and 
within  a  block  or  two  overtook  the  fugitive.  He  first  proceeded  to  give  the  object 
of  his  charge  a  slight  reprimand  for  his  delinquency  by  means  of  a  smart  shake  or 
two,  and  then  took  the  rope  in  his  mouth  to  lead  the  dog  back  to  his  master. 
Some  holding  back  was  manifested,  the  string  was  dropped,  and  another  shaking 
administered.  Finally,  by  alternate  chastisements  and  pullings  at  the  cord,  the 
runaway  dog  was  brought  into  the  restaurant,  and  the  Newfoundland,  with  a  sly 
wink  to  his  master,  seemed  to  say,  "  There  he  is."  The  scene  was  witnessed  by 
many,  and  created  no  little  excitement. — New  York  Paper. 

A  NEWFOUNDLAND'S  REVENGE. 

308.  A  cousin  of  the  Author  of  this  work  was  a  timber  merchant  in  a  sea-port  town 
of  England.  He  had  two  remarkably  fine  dogs  that  frequently  afforded  striking 
evidences  of  sagacity.  "Hector"  and  "Wallace"  had  often,  in  quitting  the 
timber-yard,  to  pass  through  a  narrow  lane  which  ascended  a  hill  leading  from  the 
sea.  In  this  lane  lived  an  old  woman,  who  kept  a  snappish  little  cur,  that  always 
ran  out  and  barked  at  the  Newfoundlands.  Of  this  they  took  no  notice,  or  only 
answered  the  insolence  of  the  cur  by  a  dignified  growl.  At  last  the  little  culprit, 
emboldened  by  the  forbearance  of  the  Newfoundlands,  snapped  at  the  hind  leg  of 
one  of  them  and  bit  it  severely.  Hector,  the  dog  who  was  bitten,  turned  round, 
and,  seizing  the  cur  by  the  neck,  carried  him  leisurely  down  to  the  sea-side,  plunged 
in,  and  swam  with  him  to  what  is  called  "boat's  moorings" — about  a  hundred 
yards  or  more  from  the  shore.  There  he  let  the  unhappy  cur  go,  and  as  he  attempted 
to  swim  ashore,  Hector  every  now  and  then  struck  him  with  his  paw.  The 
cur  was  drowned ;  the  Newfoundland  brought  his  body  ashore  and  laid  it  out  upon 
the  beach — a  solemn  warning  to  all  curs  against  offending  the  dignity  of  the  New 
foundland.  Mr.  Youatt  tells  a  similar  story,  but  in  this  latter  instance  capital 
punishment  was  not  inflicted,  a  severe  ducking  having  been  considered  a  sufficient 
penalty. 

CLEMENCY  OF  THE  NEWFOUNDLAND. 

309.  An  instance  of  a  soaiawhat  different  character  is  related  by  Mr.  Partington. 
While  the  Government  harbour  or  pier  at  Donaghadee,  Ireland,  was  building,  a 
battle  took  place  between  two  powerful  dogs.  One  was  a  Newfoundland,  the  otr  er 
a  mastiff.  They  had  a  prolonged  fight  upon  the  pier,  from  the  point  of  which  they 
both  f«U  into  the  sea ;  and  as  the  pier  was  long  and  steep,  they  had  no  means  of 


^    HISTORY.  101 


"  Whereunto  I  can  none  otherwise  answere,  but-;  that  h,e  ,who 
will  throw  a  stone  at  every  dot)  which  barkethj  hita',need  of  >a 
great  satchel  or  pocket." — GASCOIGNE.  ',/»*•>  ' '  • 


escape  but  by  swimming  a  considerable  distance.  Eabh  be£a^  ty,m'<ko  for  tile  lat\dl 
as  best  he  could.  The  Newfoundland,  being  an  excellent  swimmer,  very  speedily 
gained  the  shore,  on  which  he  stood  shaking  himself,  but  at  the  same  time  watching 
the  motions  of  his  former  antagonist,  which,  being  a  bad  swimmer,  was  struggling 
exhausted  in  the  water,  and  just  about  to  sink.  In  dashed  the  Newfoundland, 
took  the  other  gently  by  the  collar,  kept  his  head  above  water,  and  brought  him 
safely  on  shore.  There  was  a  peculiar  kind  of  recognition  between  the  two  animals, 
they  had  often  fought  before,  but  never  did  so  afterwards ;  and  upon  tae  New 
foundland  dog  being  accidentally  killed  by  a  stone-waggon  on  the  railway 
passing  over  him,  the  mastiff  languished  and  lamented  for  a  considerable 
time. 

A  CUR   PERFORMS  THE   PART   OF  A   DETECTIVE. 

310.  Mr.  Youatt  tells  the  following  anecdote,  vouching  for  its  truth  :  A  young  man, 
an  acquaintance  of  the  coachman,  was  walking,  as  he  had  often  done,  in  Lord  Fife's 
stables  at  Banff.  Taking  an  opportunity,  when  the  servants  were  not  regarding 
him,  he  put  a  bridle  into  his  pocket.  A  highland  cur  that  was  generally  about  the 
stable  saw  him,  and  immediately  began  to  bark ;  and,  when  he  got  to  the  stable 
door,  would  not  let  him  pass,  but  bit  him  by  the  leg,  in  order  to  prevent  him.  As 
the  servants  had  never  seen  the  clog  act  thus  before,  and  the  same  young  man  had 
been  often  with  them,  they  could  not  imagine  what  had  been  the  reason  of  the  dog's 
conduct.  However,  when  they  saw  the  end  of  a  valuable  bridle  peeping  out  of  the 
young  man's  pocket,  they  were  able  to  account  for  it ;  and,  on  his  giving  it  up,  the 
dog  left  the  stable-door,  where  he  had  stood,  and  allowed  him  to  pass. 

DOG    PHILANTHROPISTS. 

31 1.  Upon  Mount  St.  Bernard,  and  near  one  of  the  most  dangerous  mountain  passes, 
is  a  convent,  in  which  is  preserved  a  breed  of  large  dogs,  trained  to  search  for  the 
benighted  and  frozen  wanderer.  Every  night,  and  particularly  when  the  wind 
blows  tempestuously,  some  of  these  dogs  are  sent  out.  They  traverse  every  path 
about  the  mountains,  and  their  scent  is  so  exquisite  that  they  can  discover  the 
traveller,  although  he  may  lie  many  feet  deep  in  the  snow.  Having  found  him , 
they  set  to  work  and  endeavour  to  scrape  away  the  snow,  uttering  a  deep  bark  that 
reverberates  from  rock  to  rock,  and  tells  those  who  are  watching  in  the  convent  that 
some  poor  wretch  is  in  peril.  Generally,  a  little  flask  of  spirits  is  tied  round  the 
neck  of  the  animal;  by  drinking  which  the  benighted  traveller  may  recruit  his 
strength  until  more  effectual  rescue  arrives.  The  monks  hasten  in  the  direction  of 
the  sound,  and  often  succeed  in  rekindling  the  vital  spark  before  it  is  quite 
extinguished.  Very  many  travellers  have  been  thus  rescued  from  death  by  these 
benevolent  men  and  their  intelligent  and  interesting  quadruped  servants. 

One  of  these  Bernardine  dogs,  named  Barry,  had  a  medal  tied  round  his  neck  as 
a  badge  of  honourable  distinction,  for  he  had  saved  the  lives  of  forty  persons.  He 
at  length  died  nobly  in  his  vocation.  A  Piedmontese  courier  arrived  at  St.  Bernard 
on  a  very  stormy  day,  labouring  to  make  his  way  to  the  little  village  of  St.  Pierre, 
in  the  valley  beneath  the  mountain,  where  his  wife  and  children  lived.  It  was  in 
vain  that  the  monks  attempted  to  check  his  resolution  to  reach  his  family.  1  hey  at 


102  THE    REASON   WHY  : 


Bchol<V  yon  mountain's  hoary  height, 

hfi£ner  ^ith  new  mounts  of  snow  ; 

' 


•-AjStti-.t  it)olix)kl  the  winter's  weight 
*t)p 


)pprfos  the  labouring  woods  below."  —  DRYDKX. 

'     «  '"  ^  " 

•  Itst  gtifr*?  him  two  /jiudes,  eaoh  of  whom  was  accompanied  by  a  dog,  one  of  which 
was  ;he  remarkable  creature  whose  services  had  been  so  valuable.  Descending  from 
the  :onvent,  they  were  overwhelmed  by  two  avalanches  or  heaps  of  falling  snow, 
and  the  same  destruction  awaited  the  family  of  the  poor  courier,  who  were 
travelling  up  the  mountain  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  some  news  of  the  husbaud 
and  father.* 


312.  Why  is  the  jackal  called  "the  lion's  provider?" 
Because,  when  jackals  hunt  their  prey,  they  make  hideous 
noises.  The  lion,  knowing  that  these  sounds  are  signs  that  the 
jackals  are  on  the  bunt,  prowls  about  in  their  wake,  and  when  the  j 
have  killed  an  animal,  he  puts  them  to  flight,  and  feeds  upon  the 
carcase.  The  jackals  keep  aloof  until  the  lion  has  satisfied  his 
hunger,  and  then  they  return  and  devour  the  fragments  that  may 
remain. 

313.  The  tiger,  as  well  as  the  lion,  follows  the  track  of  the  jackal,  and  robs  it  of 
prey.  The  idea  that  the  jackal  is  instinctively  "  the  lion's  provider"  is  one  of  the 
ingenious  fictions  that  gather  around  every  imperfect  history. 

314.   Why  has  the  Nubian  ferret  valves  to  its  ears  ? 

Because  it  burrows  in  sandy  ground  ;  the  peculiar  structure  of 
its  ears  is  therefore  adapted  to  preserve  those  most  important 
organs. 

315.  The  ferret  has  unusually  large  ears,  which  renders  it  more  than  ordinarily 

liable  to  inconvenience  while  bur 
rowing  in  sandy  ground.  The  valve 
of  the  ear,  as  it  has  been  termed, 
consists  of  a  plait  or  fold,  Avhich 
shows  itself  externally  at  the  bottom. 
The  interior  borders  of  the  ears  are 
covered  with  thick  white  hair,  but 
the  middle  part  is  bare,  and  of  a  pink 
or  rose  colour.  The  auditory  cells 
of  the  ferret  are  larger  than  those 
of  the  common  fox,  though  the 
former  is  two-thirds  less  than  the 

fox  in  size.    I*  is   probable  that  the  ferret  hears  much  more  acutely  than  most 

quadrupeds. 

*  "  Youatt  on  the  Dog." 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  103 


Out,  out,  hyen<i;  those  thy  wonted  arts, 
And  arts  of  every  woman  false  like  thee ; 
To  break  ail  faith,  all  vows,  deceive,  betray, 
Then  as  repentant  to  submit." — MILTOX. 


31<J.   Wliy  are  hyenas  denominated  "  scavengers 


Because  they  are  so  voracious 
tliat  they  will  feed  upon  putrefy 
ing  substances.  They  therefore 
clear  away  putrid  carcases  which 
in  a  hot  climate  would  produce 
dangerous  consequences  to  man 
kind. 


~  317.  As  carrion  feeders,  thep  seem  des- 
~*  tined  to  fill  up  an  important  station  in  the 
economy  of  nature,  by  clearing  the  earth 
of  the  decaying  carcases  of  beast*,  whose 
remains  might  otherwise  infect  the  air  with  pestilential  effluvia.  Their  numbers  is 
commensurate  to  the  importance  of  their  office ;  although  solitary  animals  ia 
general,  they  will  sometimes  assemble  in  troops  and  follow  the  movements  of  aa 
irmy,  in  order  to  feast  on  the  bodies  of  those  wko  perish  on  the  battle-field.  It  is 
Asserted,  and.  is  not  at  all  impossible,  that  they  tear  newly-buried  bodies  oat 
of  tke  graves, 

Mr.  Bruce,  tke  Abyssinian  traveller,  tkus  speaks  of  them: — "I  do  not  think 
there  is  any  one  that  has  hitherto  written  of  this  animal  who  ever  saw  tke  tkousandtk 
pa?  t  of  them  that  I  hare.  Tkey  were  a  plague  in  Abyssinia  in  every  situation,  botk 
in  the  city  and  in  tke  field,  and,  I  think,  surpassed  the  sheep  in  number.  Gondat 
was  full  of  them,  from  the  time  it  turned  dark  till  the  dawn  ef  day,  seeking  the 
different  pieces  of  slaughtered  carcases  which  this  cruel  and  unclean  people  expose 
in  the  stteets  without  burial,  and  who  firmly  believe  that  these  animals  are  Falasha 
from  the  neighbouring  mountain^,  transformed  by  magic,  and  come  down  to  eat 
human  fiesk  in  tke  dark  in  safety." 

318.  The  spotted  hyena  is  the  most  common  species  in  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  ;  and  although  its  presence  requires  caution  on  the  part 
of  the  shepherds  in  regard  to  their  cattle,  yet  it  is  a  very  valuable 
animal  scavenger,  as  it  is  well  known  to  come  nightly  to  Cape 
Town  and  clear  away  the  offal,  bones,  &c.,  which  are  thrown  out 
in  large  quantities  ;  and  Spurrman  says  that  the  dogs  are  so  well 
accustomed  to  it  that  they  feed  side  by  side  without  molestation, 
and  the  hyena  ia  rarely  known  to  do  mischief  when  thus 
satiated. 


104 


THE   REASON  WHY  : 


"  Lady,  I  would  descend  to  kiss  your  hand, 
But  that  'tis  gloved,  and  civet  makes  me  sick." — MASSINGEB. 


3]  9.  Why  is  the  civet  commonly  called  the  "  civet  cat  ? " 

Merely  from  some  slight 
resemblance  in  the  far  of  the 
body,  and  the  form  of  the 
tail ;  and  from  their  habit  of 
catching  mice.  The  name 
cat  is,  in  all  other  respects, 
inapplicable.  They  are  great 
destroyers  of  eggs,  are  ex 
pert  in  catching  birds,  and 
some  of  them  occasionally 
pursue  their  prey  by  coursing.  They  frequent  the  banks  of  streams, 
the  woodlands,  or  open  glades,  preying  upon  the  smaller  reptiles 
and  the  eggs  of  the  larger  in  the  first  of  those  places,  on  birds  and 
small  quadrupeds  in  the  second,  and  on  the  smaller  lizards  in 
the  third. 

320.  The  perfume  called  civet  is  produced  from  an  orifice  under  the  anus  in  bott 
sexes,  secreted  by  peculiar  glands.  The  persons  who  keep  them  are  said  to  procure 
the  ciret  by  scraping  the  inside  of  their  legs  twice  a  week  with  an  iron  spatula, 
getting  about  a  drachm  each  time  ;  but  it  is  seldom  sold  pure,  being  mixed  with 
suet  or  oil  to  make  it  more  weighty.  The  males  yield  the  most,  especially  when 
they  are  irritated.  They  inhabit  India,  the  Philippine  Isles,  Guinea,  Africa, 
and  Madagascar. 

321.  Why  is  the  leopard  so  catted? 

The  name  is  composed  of  two  words,  leo  (lion),  and  parent 
(panther),  and  has  a  fabulous  application:  the  fable  being  that 
the  leopard  was  a  mule  or  hybrid  between  these  two  species, 
partaking  of  the  fabled  generosity  of  the  one,  and  the  savage 
disposition  of  the  other. 

322.  IVJiat    is    the   distinction   between    the    panther    and    the 
leopard  ? 

The  only  differences  between  them  are  in  the  size  and  marking, 
and  in  the  more  active  and  playful  disposition  which  seems  to  be 
connected  with  smallness  of  size  in  this  genus  of  animals.  It 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  105 

"  Some  say  a  sea-maid  spawned  her." — SHAKSPERE. 

is    possible   that    they  are   only    varieties   of  the   same   original 
species. 

323.  Why  is  the  ocelot  so  called? 

From  the  Latin  ocellus,  a  small  eye  ;  it  refers  to  the  animal  being 
spotted  with  small  marks,  or  eyes. 

324.  Wliy  are  seals  classed  among  carnivorous  "  quadrupeds  ?  " 
Because  they  are  flesh  eaters,  possess  carnivorous  teeth,  and  in 


their  skeletons  the  four  extremities  that  distinguish  quadrupeds  are 
represented  in  the  fin-like  members. 

325.  The  principles  pursued  in  the  classification  of  animals  may  be  thus  fami 
liarised  '.—Seals  belong  to  the  first  great  division  of  the  animal  kingdom,  Verte- 
brata,  because  they  possess  a  true  back-bone  formed  of  vertebras  (from  verto,  to 
turn).  They  belong  to  the  class  Mammalia  (from  mamma,  the  breast),  because  they 
have  teats  and  suckle  their  young.  They  belong  to  the  sub-order  Carnivora  (from 
caro,  flesh,  and  voro,  to  eat),  because  they  are  flesh-caters,  and  possess  carnivorous 
teeth.  They  are  of  the  family  Phocidce  (from  a  Greek  word  meaning  a  sea-calf), 
because  of  their  fancied  resemb'ance  to  a  calf,  and  of  their  marine  habits  ;  they  are 
made  the  type  ofjiumerous  animals  that  resemble  them  ;  and  they  are  ranted  with 
Quadrupeds  (frorn  quadra,  four,  andped,  foot),  because  in  their  skeletons  the  four 
lower  extremities  that  distinguish  quadrupeds  are  well  defined. 

The  dog,  as  another  example,  belongs  to  the  Vertebrated  division,  as  the  sea 
does ;  and  for  the  same  reasons,  it  belongs  also  to  the  class  Mammalia,  and  the  sub 
order  Carnioora.  But  here  the  resemblance  ceases,  and  the  dog  enters  the  order 
Diyitiyrades  (from  digita,  a  finger  or  toe,  and  gradice,  to  walk),  because  it  walks 
principally  on  its  toes  ;  and  to  the  genus  Canis,  the  Latiu  name  for  a  dog,  on  account 
ct  certain  peculiarities  of  the  teeth. 
5-f 


106  THE    EEASON    WHY  : 


"  Proteus,  thy  song  to  heare, 
Seas  list'ning  stand,  and  windes  to  whistle  fear  ; 
The  lively  dolphins  dance,  and  bristly  scales  give  eare."  —  FLETCHER. 

326.  Why  are  seals  found  in  greatest  numbers  in  estuariw 
and  straits  ? 

Because  the  fishes  upon  which  they  feed  are  dispersed  in  the 
open  sea,  but  congregate  in  greater  numbers  in  the  currents  of 
narrow  places. 

327.  In  some  districts  seals  are  very  numerous.  In  the  Caspian  Sea,  for  instance, 
and  in  the  Isle  of  Juan  Fernandez.  "  Here,"  says  Captain  Dampier,  "  are  always 
thousands,  I  might  say  possibly  millions  of  them,  either  sitting  on  the  crags,  or 
going  and  coming  with  the  sea  round  the  island,  which  is  covered  with  them  (as 
they  lie  at  the  top  of  the  water  playing  and  sunning  themselves)  for  a  mile  or  two 
from  the  shore.  They  produce  in  the  autumn  two  young  ones,  which  for  some 
time  are  white  and  woolly,  and  are  suckled  for  six  or  seven  weeks,  after  which  they 
take  to  the  sea  ;  and  when  the  dams  come  out  of  the  sea  they  bleat  like  sheep  for 
their  young,  and  though  they  pass  through  hundreds  before  they  reach  their  own, 
will  not  permit  any  of  them  to  suck." 


328.  ^VTiy  do  Greenland  seal-hunters  place  themselves  by  holes 
in  the  ice  ? 

Because  the  seals  being  obliged  to  breathe  air  make  for 
themselves  holes  in  the  ice,  that  they  may  rise  for  this  purpose. 
The  hunter,  therefore,  knows  when  he  sees  a  hole  that  seals  are 
about,  and  that  some  of  them  must  soon  come  up  to  breathe. 

329.  Another  stratagem  employed  in  the  capture  of  seals  is  as  follows  :  —  In  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia,  when  spring  is  approaching,  and  the  ice  is  forced  from  the  shores  by 
the  rivers  emptying  themselves  into  the  sea,  the  seals  are  often  found  upon  the 
larger  masses  ;  and  in  order  to  obtain  them,  the  hunters  set  off  in  a  boat.  Having 
taken  the  precaution  to  whiten  the  boat  with  lime,  and  put  on  white  dresses  to 
render  themselves  less  suspected,  they  go  in  search  of  their  prey,  and  continue 
rowing  about  from  one  block  of  ice  to  another,  destroying  many  seals. 

330.  Why  are  the  nostrils  of  seals  surrounded  with  long  bristly 
hairs  ? 

These  hairs,  or  whiskers,  are  instruments  of  touch,  and  serve  a 
similar  purpose  to  the  seal  in  its  submarine  excursions,  as  do  those 
of  lions,  tigers,  and  cats,  in  forests  and  jungles.  No  doubt  these 
instruments  are  exceedingly  useful  in  exploring  the  crevices  and 
irregular  surfaces  of  icebergs,  beneath  the  water,  where  fishes  may 
sometimes  take  shelter  and  conceal 


NATURAL   HISTORY,  107 


"  These  scales  be  hardly  killed,  unlessc  a.  man  dash  out  their 
bratnes.  In  their  sleepe  they  seem  to  lowe  or  bleat,  and.  there 
upon  they  be  called  sea-cali~c&," — HOLLAND. 


831.  In  some  of  the  species  these  hairs  are  jointed,  and  formed  in  a  manner 
resembling  the  antennae  (feelers)  of  beetles.  They  have  their  roots  in  a  sort  of 
cylindrical  capsule,  of  horny  consistency  at  the  bottom,  and  meet  there  with  some 
small  vesse.s  connected  with  the  muscles,  and  also  with  a  fine  membrane  which 
Ikies  tne  whole  of  the  internal  surface.  These  bulbous  roots  of  the  bristles, 
especially  in  the  fine  membrane  with  which  they  are  lined,  are  closely  connected 
with  many  ramifications  of  nerves. 

332.  Wliy  are  the  nostrils  of  seals -made  to  close  habitually? 
Because,  as  the  amphibious  habits  of  the  seal  require  the  nostrils 

to  be  sometimes  open  and  at  other  times  closed,  an  effort  of  the 
animal  must  be  required  to  produce  one  or  other  of  these  ends. 
The  natural  state  of  the  nostrils  is  to  remain  closed,  and  an  effort 
is  required  to  open  them  when  the  seal  reaches  the  air. 

The  wisdom  of  this  provision  is  evident  :  the  animal  hunts  its 
prey  beneath  the  water,  and  its  nostrils  being  closed  by  their  own 
exquisite  machinery,  the  seal  has  no  care  concerning  them  while 
capturing  its  food.  But  when  the  capture  is  completed,  and  the 
animal  has  no  more  effort  to  make  for  that  purpose,  it  returns  to 
the  air,  and  bestows  an  effort  upon  the  necessity  for  breathing. 

333.  Wliy   are  the   eyes    of   seals    very  fully  and   peculiarly 
developed  ? 

Because  it  is  by  sight  principally  that  they  pursue  their  prey. 
Their  nostrils  are  necessarily  closed  when  under  water,  so  that  they 
probably  have  no  sense  of  smell  in  that  situation.  Their  ears  are 
also  small,  and  become  contracted  under  water ;  the  sense  of  sight 
is  therefore  their  chief  guide. 

334.  The  eye  of  the  seal  is  fitted  for  a  double  action,  for  seeing  either  in  the  water 
or  the  air.  There  is  no  eye  which  can  be  said  to  have,  upon  the  whole,  to  perform 
these  offices  so  equally.  They  have  to  use  their  eyes  deep  in  the  water,  and  when 
there  is  very  little  light,  or  indeed  none,  the  water  being  sometimes  frozen  over, 
and  a  deep  stratum  of  snow  lying  upon  the  ice.  The  eyes  are  placed  very  near  to 
each  other,  thus  indicating  that  they  follow  their  prey  from  a  forward  view.  The 
schlerotic  coat  is  composed  of  a  thick,  hard,  and  firm  membrane,  by  which  strength 
is  given  to  the  eye  under  the  pressure  of  water ;  and  there  is  a  provision  for 
adj  usting  the  focus  of  sight  to  the  dissimilar  conditions  of  seeing  in  air  and  in 
fluid.  While,  to  modify  the  change,  the  cornea  of  the  eye  is  flat,  there  being 
less  difference  01  light  from  a  flat  cornea  than  from  a  convex  one  of  the  same 
surface. 


108 


THE    REASON    WHY: 


With  snow,  frost,  hail,  and  sleet,  and  found  stern  winter  strong, 
With  mighty  isles  of  ice,  and  monsters  huge  and  strong." — DRAYTCN. 


335.  Why  has  the  walrus  large  tusks  descending  from  its 
upper  jaw  ? 

These  tusks  consist  of  an  enlargement  of  the  canine  teeth,  which 
in  the  carnivorous  tribes  are  chiefly  employed  to  capture  and 
kill  the  prey  upon  which  they  subsist. 

They  are  thus  enlarged  in  the  walrus  to  enable  the  animal  to 
mow  down,  or  to  throw  aside,  the  great  fields  of  sea-weeds  arnom* 
which  it  finds  crustaceous  and  molluscous  animals,  such  as  lobsters, 
crabs,  shell-fish,  &c.,  upon  which  it  feeds. 

They  are  also  useful  to  enable  the  animal,  the  body  of  which 
is  cumbrous  and  heavy,  to  clamber  over  the  blocks  of  ice,  among 
which  it  lives.  This  it  accomplishes  by  fixing  its  tusks  in  the 
ice,  using  them  as  a  lever  to  assist  its  movements.  They  enable 
the  animal  to  raise  itself  out  of  the  water,  by  holding  on  upon 
the  rock  or  iceberg,  just  as  the  parrot  steadies  himself  by  its 
bill.  The  tusks  are  also  used  as  weapons  of  defence. 

ORDER,  IV.— MARSUPIALIA. 

336.   Why  are  kanguroos,  opossums,  &c.,  included  in  the  order 

Marsupialia  ? 

Because  they  are  distinguished 
by  a  pouch-like  appendage  on 
the  under-part  of  the  females, 
which  pouch  is  supported  by 
two  peculiar  bones  called  Mar 
supial  —  from  the  Latin  word 
Marsupium,  meaning  a  purse 
or  pouch. 

337.  Why  are  these  animah 
provided  with  pouches  ? 

Because  their  young  are  born 
in  a  very  helpless  state.  They 
are  far  more  minute  and  formless 
t>han  the  young  of  any  other  ol 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  109 


"  That  natural  affection,  so  connatural  to  all  or  most  creatures 
toward  their  young,  what  an  admirable,  noble  principle  it  is, 
implanted  in  them  by  a  wise  Creator !  "— DERHAM. 

the  mammalia,  not  excepting  those  which  come  into  the  world  blind 
and  naked.  The  pouch  answers  as  a  description  of  second  womb, 
in  which  the  young  animals  are  brought  to  maturity. 

338.  The  young  of  all  the  animals  of  this  order  are  remarkable  for  their  imperfect 
development  at  the  time  of  their  birth.  Even  in  the  species  without  pouches  (for 
some  have  a  mere  fold  of  the  skin,  scarcely  visible)  the  young  hang  under  the  belly 
of  the  mother  for  a  certain  time  ;  then  they  mount  on  her  back,  and  twist  their  tai  s 
round  hers  to  fix  themselves.  The  young  of  the  kaola,  which  has  no  tail,  fixes 
itself  on  the  parent's  back,  and  fastens  there  with  its  hands.  It  is  remarkable  that, 
in  the  unpregnant  animal,  the  pouch  is  closed,  being  glued,  as  it  were,  to  the  body 
of  the  parent  by  a  peculiar  secretion.  As  the  pregnancy  advances,  this  secretion 
becomes  absorbed,  and  the  folds  of  the  pouch  are  set  free,  so  that  just  at  the  time 
when  the  young  within  the  body  of  the  animal  are  prepared  to  leave  it,  the  pouch 
or  nursery  on  the  outside  is  fitted  to  receive  them.* 

339.  Why  are  the  young  of  these  animals  lorn  in  such  a  helpless 
condition  ? 

Because  by  far  the  greater  number  of  the  marsupial  animals  are 
either  leapers  or  climbers ;  and  this  peculiar  arrangement  of 
the  organs  of  gestation  is  evidently  intended  to  enable  the 
loins  to  have  more  powerful  action  than  they  could  have  if  the 
body  of  the  animal  were  encumbered  with  full-grown  young. 

340.  It  has  not  hitherto  been  noticed  by  naturalists  (the  Author  believes)  that  the 
peculiar  gestation  of  the  marsupialia  forms  an  intermediate  design  between  the 
complete  gestation  of  mammalia  and  the  egg-laying  capacity  of  birds.  To  animals 
of  flight,  bearing  their  young,  apart  fi-om  any  consideration  of  the  number  of  the 
offspring,  must  De  a  serious  impediment ;  they  are,  therefore,  endowed  with  tht 
power  of  excluding  the  ova  and  maturing  their  young  apart  from  their  own  bodies, 
To  animals  that  are  terrestrial,  and  endowed  with  leaping  powers,  the  encumbered- 
womb  must  prove  almost  as  great  an  impediment  as  to  creatures  of  the  air.  The 
gestation,  therefore,  is  imperfect,  and  is  completed  after  the  young  has  passed  from 
the  womb.  It  is  also  worthy  of  remark  that  as  birds  lay  from  two  to  fifteen  ot 
eighteen  eggs,  marsupial  animals  bear  from  one  to  twelve  young  ones. 

The  pouch  of  the  opossum  is  thus  described  by  M.  D'Argaza: — "  The  female 
has  the  whole  length  of  the  belly  cleft  or  slit,  and  appearing  like  a  person's  waist 
coat  buttoned  only  at  the  top  and  bottom.  This  cavity  the  animal  has  the  power  of 
firmly  closing.  Within  it  are  thirteen  teats,  extremely  small,  one  in  the  centre  and 
the  rest  ranged  round  it."  The  same  authority  speaks  of  one  which  he  saw  that 
had  thirteen  young  ones.  They  had  ceased  to  suck,  and  the  pouch,  since  they  were 

•  Cavier'a  "  Regne  Animal." 


110 


THE    REASON    WHY  : 


1  The  trees,  devouring  caterpillars  bare  : 
Parch  ..-i  was  the  grass,  and  blighted  was  the  corn." — DBYDEN. 


so  much  grown,  was  not  large  enough  to  contain  them,  but  the  mother  carried 
them  about  fixed  to  her  tail,  legs,  and  body. 

The  structure  of  these  animals  agrees  with  the  contingencies  under  which 
tl.ey  exist.  They  are  subjected  to  considerable  hardships,  arising  from  tlie 
alternate  parching  and  flooding  of  the  countries  in  which  they  abound — 
countries  which  are  not  adapted  for  the  common  mammalia  in  a  state  of 
nature — and  accordingly  we  find  that  in  New  Holland,  which  may  be  con 
sidered  the  head  quarters  of  marsupial  animals,  there  are  no  native  placental 
mammalia,  and  such  are  not  very  common  in  the  other  localities  of  these  animals. 
New  Holland,  New  Guinea,  some  of  the  other  Islnnds  of  the  Archipelago,  South 
America,  and  the  warmer  part  of  North  America,  in  the  case  of  a  single  species 
only,  are  the  localities  of  these  animals,  and  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that 
not  one  of  them  has  been  hitherto  found  in  Africa,  though  they  occur  ou 
both  sides  of  it.* 

341.   Why  has  the  kanguroo  such  powerful  posterior  organs'/ 

Because  the  hind  feet  and 
the  tail  are  employed  as  leap 
ing  organs,  and  also  as  weapons 
of  defence.  The  leap  is  of 
very  great  length,  and  is 
accomplished  by  the  action 
of  the  tail,  almost  as  much  as 
by  the  legs. 

By  the  pliability  of  its 
spine  and  the  flexibility  of 
its  posterior  members,  the 
animal  can  place  icself  pre 
paratory  to  a  bound  so  that, 
the  lower  bones  of  the  leg 
being  horizontal,  the  two 
superior  bones  shall  be  inclined  to  them  at  something  less  than 
a  right  angle,  as  shown  in  figures  1  and  2,  representing  the  profile 
and  the  skeleton  of  the  kanguroo  ;  by  which  it  will  be  seen 
how  greatly  the  structure  of  the  animal  favours  its  principle  of 
locomotion. 


•  Partington's  "  Cyclopaedia." 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


Ill 


"  And   on  the   playn  of  these  valleys  there  were   roerualouse, 
great  marshes,  and  dangerous  passages." — FROISSAHT. 


342.  These  proportions  are  reversed  in  quadrupeds  of  slow  locomotive  powers,  cf 
which  the  giraffe  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  examples.  In  this  animal  a  great 
proportionate  length  is  given  to  its  fore-legs ;  so  that,  notwithstanding  the  length 
of  its  neck,  it  would  be  incapable  of  taking  its  food  from  the  surface  upon  which  it 
stands.  Nature  has,  however,  beneficially  adapted  the  wants  of  the  animal  to  its 
structure ;  and,  while  its  head  is  elevated  to  a  height  of  twenty  feet  above  the 
ground,  nourishment  situated  at  a  corresponding  elevation  is  supplied  in  the  foliage 
of  the  trees. 

343.  Why  is  the  bounding  movement  of  the  Tcanguroo  admirably 
adapted  to  the  localities  they  inhabit? 

Because  kangaroos  inhabit  a  country  where  there  are  enormous 
tufts  of  the  coarsest  grass,  growing  on  swamps  or  marshy  ground, 
several  feet  in  height,  and  at  a  considerable  distance  from  each 
other  ;  or  else  they  frequent  rocky  or  bushy  ground.  By  means 
of  the  bound  which  they  are  enabled  to  execute  they  can  clear 
from  twelve  to  twenty  feet  in  length  and  several  feet  in  height, 
from  one  tuft  of  grass,  or  from  one  rock  or  bush,  to  another,  and 
thus  escape  from  their  pursuers. 

344.  In  kanguroos  Avhich  have  been  bred  and  domesticated  in  this  country,  the 
size  and  strength  of  the  tail  diminishes,  and  the  animals  more  frequently  use  all 
four  of  their  feet  in  running.     This  is  a  strong  illustration  of  the  care  taken  by  a 
beneficent  Px-ovideuce  of   its  creatures,  in  furnishing  them  with  the  means  best 


112  THE    REASOM    WHY! 


"  It  was  observed  of  this  animal,  that  he  leaped  or  bounded 
forward  on  two  legs,  instead  of  running  upon  four." — GAIT.  COOK. 


adapted  for  their  relative  conditions  and  situations  in  the  protection  of  themselves, 
and  diminishing  those  means  when  they  become  no  longer  of  the  same  importance 
to  them. 

345.  Why  are  the  kanguroo's*  head  and  fore  paws  so  small  ? 
Because  this  conformation  of  the  body  is  peculiarly  adapted  to 

its  leaping  habits  ;  this  form  contributes  to  keep  the  body  of  the 
animal  almost  erect  in  the  air,  while  the  weight  of  the  lower 
quarters  brings  it  to  the  ground  with  precision,  and  in  a  natural 
position,  prepared  immediately  to  repeat  the  leap. 

346.  Why  does  the    long-tailed  belidens  seldom   descend  to   the 
ground  ? 

Because  its  structure,  and  especially  the  enormous  length  of  its 
tail,  is  ill  adapted  for  terrestrial  habits  ;  but  it  sometimes  descends 
for  the  purpose  of  passing  to  a  tree  too  distant  to  be  reached 
by  a  spring. 

The  tops  of  trees  are  traversed  by  this  animal  with  as  much  ease 
as  the  most  level  ground  is  by  such  as  are  destined  for  terra  firma. 
If  chased  or  forced  to  flight,  it  ascends  to  the  highest  branch,  and 
performs  the  most  enormous  leaps,  sweeping  from  tree  to  tree.  It  has 
a  membrane  at  its  sides,  which  extends  and  forms  a  description  of 
parachute,  and  which  enables  it  to  proceed  to  a  considerable 
distance,  always  ascending  a  little  at  the  extremity  of  the  leap  ; 
by  this  ascent  the  animal  is  prevented  from  receiving  the  shock 
which  it  would  otherwise  sustain. 

347.  This  fine  little  animal  is  common  in  all  the  bushes  of  New  South  Wales.  In 
those  vast  forests,  trees  of  one  kind  or  another  arc  perpetually  flowering,  and  thus 
offer  a  never-failing  supply  of  blossoms,  upon  which  the  little  creature  feeds ;  the 
flowers  of  the  vaiious  kinds  of  gums,  some  of  which  are  of  great  magnitude,  ari 
the  principal  favourites.* 


•  Commonly  spelled  "kangaioo,"  but  more  properly  kunguroo. 
+  Gould's  "  Mammals  of  Australia." 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  113 


"  By  dreraes,  by  chirking  of  dores,  or  craking  of  houses,  by 
gnawing  of  rattes,  and  swiche  like  manner  of  wretchednesse." 

CHAUCEK. 


ORDER   V. — RODENTIA. 

348.   WJiy  are  the  animals  of  this  order  named  rodents  ? 
Because  of  the  peculiar  formation  of  their  teeth,  and  their  habit 
of  gnawing — the  Latin  verb  rodo  meaning  to  gnaw. 

349.  In  the  order  Rodentia  the  front  teeth  cut  with  a  sharp  edge.  We  know  that 
this  is  contrived  in  the  tool  of  the  carpenter,  and  we  know  that  he  must  from  time 
to  time  apply  his  chisel  to  the  grindstone.  The  front  teeth  of  the  beaver,  the 
porcupine,  and  the  rat,  are  sharp,  and  yet  not  blunted  by  use ;  the  bone  of  the  tooth 
is  the  densest  possible,  consistent  with  the  material ;  but,  were  the  whole  tooth  of 
the  same  material,  it  would  be  ground  down  uniformly,  and  the  original  form  of  the 
instrument  would  be  lost.  Accordingly,  a  different  substance,  the  enamel,  which 
yields  more  slowly  to  friction  than  the  bone,  is,  as  it  were,  let  in  on  the  anterior 
surface  of  the  tooth.  The  consequence  is,  that  the  enamel  stands  up  sharp  and 
exposed,  so  as  to  protect  the  bone  of  the  tooth,  and  to  give  the  surface  which  is 
worn  down  a  certain  shape,  suited  to  act  like  nippers.  The  friction  and  the 
arrangement  of  the  material  of  the  tooth  so  far  correspond,  that  the  cutting  form 
is  preserved,  however  much  the  surface  may  be  worn  down. 

350.  Why  are  the  jaws  of  rodents  remarkably  light  ? 

Because  strength  in  the  jaws  is  not  requisite,  but  rather  light 
ness,  because  the  action  is  continued  gnawing,  or  rubbing,  and  not 
powerful  biting.  This  may  be  seen  in  the  different  ways  in  which 
a  monkey  and  a  squirrel  go  about  to  get  at  the  kernel  of  a  nut. 
The  monkey  takes  it  between  his  strong  jaws,  and  cracks  it  at  once 
by  one  lusty  gripe,  while  the  squirrel  nibbles  away  till  it  makes  a 
hole  in  the  nut. 

351.  Why  do  squirrels   convey  food  to  their  mouths  with  two 
paws  while  monkeys  generally  use  but  one? 

Because  their  fore-arms  have  but  little  motion  in  the  elbow 
joints,  and  their  two  bones  are  often  united.  The  paw,  therefore, 
cannot  turn,  but  has  merely  a  hinge  motion  in  this  particular  joint. 
Many  of  them,  however,  have  tolerably  perfect  clavicles,  and  others 
have  imperfect  ones,  so  that  they  can  bring  the  paw  to  the  mouth 
without  any  turning  of  the  elbow  ;  but,  as  they  cannot  turn  up  the 
sole  of  the  paw,  they  cannot  bring  any  substance  to  the  mouth 
except  by  holding  it  between  the  two  paws  sideways.* 

*  Partington's  "  Cyclopaedia." 


114  THE   REASON   WHY: 


"  Coridon  unto  her  brought, 
Or  little  sparrowes  stolen  from  their  nest, 
Or  wanton  squirrels  in  the  woods  farre  sought." — SPENSER. 


352.   Why  are  squirrels  grouped  as  the  genus  sciurus? 

The  scientific  name  sciurus  is  derived  from  skia,  a  shade,  and 
oura,  a  tail,  and  refers  to  the  tail  of  some  of  the  species  covering 
the  head,  as  with  a  shade.  The  common  name  squirrel  is  merely  a 
corruption  of  sciurus. 

.  353.   WTiy  are  the  hind  legs  of  squirrels  only  a   little  shorter 
than  the  front  ones  ? 

Because,  although  leaping  animals,  like  the  kanguroo,  their  style 
of  running  along  the  branches  of  trees  requires  that  they  should 
have  nearly  equal  command  and  use  of  all  their  legs.  In  this  may 
be  seen  the  difference  between  them  and  the  hares  and  jerboas 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  tree  apes,  which  have  not  the  tails 
prehensile,  on  the  other.  The  leaping  animal  has  the  hind  legs 
long,  and  the  muscular  action  of  the  body  very  much  concentrated 
upon  them.  The  climbing  animal  has  the  fore-legs  long,  and  the 
concentration  upon  them.  The  squirrel  holds  an  intermediate 
place  ;  and  this  is  the  reason  why  we  consider  its  motions  on  the 
ground  more  graceful  than  the  leaping  of  the  jerboa,  and  its  motion 
in  the  tree  more  so  than  the  climbing  of  the  ape.  Their  motions 
arc  quite  a  study  in  animal  mechanics  ;  and,  on  account  of  the 
lightness,  the  gentleness,  and  the  cleanliness  of  the  animals,  they 
are  very  pleasing  objects. 

354.  Why  are  the  eyes  of  squirrels  very  fully  developed  ? 

Because  they  have  to  find  their  food,  and  also  their  footing — the 
latter  very  quickly — in  the  shade  of  thick  leaves. 

355.  WJiy  are  the  tails  of  squirrels  so  large  and  bushy  ? 

The  tails  of  these  creatures  are  exceedingly  well  adapted,  and 
indeed  necessary,  to  their  mode  of  life  ;  they  serve  to  balance  the 
body  while  springing,  and,  acting  as  a  kind  of  parachute,  prevent 
those  jerks  and  falls  which  the  animal  would  otherwise  be  likely 
to  receive. 


NATURAL   HISTORF.  115 


"  The  morning  came  when  neighbour  Hodge, 
Climbed  like  a  squirrel  to  his  dray, 
And  bore  the  worthless  prize  away." — COWPEE. 


356.  Why  do  squirrels  lay  up  stores  of  provisions  f 
Because  in  the  winter  nuts,  acorns,  beech-nuts,  the  seeds  of  pines, 

peas,  beans,  and  other  large  seeds  upon  which  they  live,  cannot 
be  found. 

357.  There  does  not  appear   to   be  much  truth  in  the  common  saying,  that 
squirrels  are  great  planters  of  the  oak,  by  the  acorns  which  they  bury  in  the 
ground  and  are  afterwards  unable  to  find  out ;  for,  when  an  animal  has  the  instinct 
of  hiding  any  substance  as  a  supply  of  food,  it  has,  as  a  matter  of  course,  the  instinct 
of  finding  it  again  ;  and  that  a  squirrel  should  range  the  forest,  burying  acorn  after 
acoT,  in  places  where  they  would  be  apt  to  germinate,  is  very  incredible.    Th« 
store  is  always  placed  in  dry  situations,  where  it  can  be  preserved  from  growing.* 

It  was  said  of  old  that  "  squirrels  also  foresee  a  tempest  coming,  and  where  the 
wind  will  blow  :  for  looke  in  what  corner  the  wind  is  like  to  take  a  stand ;  on  that 
side  they  stop  up  the  mouth  of  their  holes,  and  make  an  overture  on  the  other  side 
against  it.'H 

358.  Why  are  some  of  the  members  of  this  tribe  called  "flying 
squirrels  ?  " 

Because  the  skin  of  their  sides  is  capable  of  great  extension,  and 
being  attached  to  both  the  anterior  and  posterior  extremities,  is 
capable  of  being  spread  out,  and  answering  the  purpose  of  a 
parachute.  There  is  a  bony  appendage  to  the  hind  feet,  which 
furnishes  an  additional  support  to  this  membrane,  in  the  extended 
springs  made  by  the  animal  from  one  tree  to  another.  These  flying 
squirrels  seem  to  differ  physically  in  nothing  from  the  squirrels, 
properly  speaking,  except  in  the  flying  apparatus,  and  the  bony 
appendage  which  supports  it.* 

359.  Why  has  the  souslik§  pouches  in  its  cheeks? 

Because  this  pretty  little  rodent  lays  up  for  the  winter  seeds, 
acorns,  nuts,  &c.,  which  they  convey  to  their  borrows.  Having  no 
other  means  of  transporting  them,  their  feet  being  all  employed  in 
their  movements,  and  their  teeth  ill-adapted  to  holding  nuts  while 
the  body  is  in  motion,  they  are  provided  with  little  pockets  or 
pouches  in  their  cheeks,  in  which  they  carry  their  winter's  store  t< 
•Jieir  burrows. 

*  Partington's  "  Cyclopaedia."  +  Holland  :    "  Plinie." 

$  Cuvier's  "  llegne  Animal."         \  Spermophihis  ciiillus. 


116  THE    REASON   WHY 


Valour's  a  mouse-trap,  wit  a  grin, 

Which  women  oft  are  taken  v/." — HUDIBRAS. 

360.  Why  does  the  dormouse*  become  fat  during  its  period  of 
hybei*nation,  while  other  hybcrnating  animals  become  thin  ? 

*  Because  its  hybernation  is  imperfect  ;  it  occasionally  wakes  and 
eats  of  the  store  of  food  it  has  previously  laid  up.  Thus  feeding, 
and  being  wholly  inactive,  its  fat  increases.  But  in  the  case  of 
animals  that  hybernate  perfectly,  and  do  not  eat,  the  fat  of  their 
bodies  is  consumed  for  the  support  of  their  organic  functions. 

361.  WTiy  is  a  small  number  of  mice  beneficial  in  some  houses  ? 

Because  they  are  great  eaters  of  the  beetles  which  infest  houses 
during  the  night. 

362.  Wliy  are  rats  beneficial  in -certain  instances? 

Because  they  frequently  make  the  sewers  or  drains  their  principal 
haunts,  and  by  devouring  putrefying  substan  je?  contribute  materially 
to  cleanliness  and  health. 

363.  As  matters  are  at  present,  the  drainage  of  London  stains  the  water  of  the 
Thames  ;  but  when  we  take  into  consideration  the  countless  millions  of  brown  rats 
which  are  supported  in  the  sewers,  and  of  which  the  greater  part  are  produced, 
live,  feed,  and  thrive  there,  without  any  other  store  for  their  support,  we  can 
readily  understand  what  would  be  the  case  if  it  were  not  for  them.  Thus,  whether 
these  animals  come  under  the  name  of  rats  or  mice  they  are,  under  certain  circum 
stances,  highly  useful,  playing  the  part  of  scavengers  for  man  in  cases  where  he  either 
cannot  or  will  not  play  it  for  himself.  Every  animal,  indeed,  which  follows  man  in 
all  his  migrations,  and  multiplies  in  proportion  as  his  numbers  multiply,  is  always 
useful  to  him.  Most  of  these  animals  are,  no  doubt,  annoying,  and  many  of  them 
are  positively  offensive  ;  but,  in  all  cases  where  they  are  so,  man  will  find  that  he 
himself  is  generally  to  blame.  They  come  to  consume  that  which  is  atvariance  wiih 
health  and  cleanliness;  and  if  the  latter  is  properly  attended  to,  there  is  no 
place  for  them.+ 

Rats  are  exceedingly  clean  animals  ;  they  invariably  wash  themselves  all  over 
after  eating,  no  matter  what.  The  operation  is  performed  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  cat  does — by  licking  the  paws.  When  a  rat  eats,  he,  by  means  of  his  sharp 
front  teeth,  gnaws  away  a  mouthful,  which  he  deposits  in  a  sort  of  pouch  formed 
between  his  grinding- teeth  and  his  cheeks.  Then  he  ceases  gnawing,  and  masticates 

•  Myoxus  glis.  +  Partington's  "Cyclopaodia." 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  117 


"  Our  natures  do  pursue, 

Like  rats  that  ravine  down  their  proper  bane, 
A  thirsty  evil,  and  when  we  drink,  we  die." — SHAKSPERE. 


kis  food,  by  moving  his  jaws  incessantly  and  without  pausing.  They  move  ten 
times  faster  than  the  jaws  of  a  rabbit.  When  a  rat  drinks,  he  laps  up  the  fluid  like 
a  dog.  A  rat  generally  tastes  his  food  with  his  tongue  previous  to  eating  it.  When 
sleeping,  the  rat  coils  himself  up  into  a  ball,  and  places  his  nose  down  between  his 
hind  legs ;  his  tail  is  curled  up  round  the  outside  of  the  body,  no  part  of  him 
projecting  but  his  two  delicate  ears,  which  are  beautifully  adapted  for  catching  the 
least  sound. 

364.  Why  may  black  rats  be  most  securely  caught  by  means  of  a 
wire  snare  fixed  on  a  beam  or  rafter? 

Because  the  black  rat  does  not  frequent  low  haunts,  such  as 
cellars,  pigsties,  &c. ;  nor  does  he  burrow  and  run  into  holes,  but  lives 
chiefly  in  the  ceilings  and  wainscoats  of  houses,  and  under  rafters 
and  beams.  The  snare  alluded  to,  therefore,  favouring  their 
peculiar  habits,  is  better  calculated  to  secure  them  than  any  other 
contrivance. 

365.  Wliy  is  the  tail  of  the  rat  so  long  and  perfectly  formed  ? 

Because  it  performs  an  important  part  in  the  animal's  progress, 
becoming  a  sort  of  hand  by  means  of  which  he  is  enabled  to  crawl 
along  the  tops  of  railings  and  along  narrow  ledges  of  walls,  balancing 
himself  by  it  or  entwining  it  round  the  projecting  portions  of  the  diffi 
cult  passages  along  which  his  course  lies.  By  means  of  it,  too,  he 
is  enabled  to  spring  up  heights  otherwise  inaccessible,  using  it  on 
these  occasions  as  a  lever,  or  rather  a  projectile  spring. 

366.  Why  does  the   disappearance    of  the  black  rat  prove  the 
greater  solidity  and  cleanliness  of  our  modern  habitations? 

Because  the  black  rat  was  never  much  of  a  city  rat,  nor  resorted 
to  houses  built  of  masonry,  and  roofed  with  tiles  or  slates.  But 
it  frequented  thatched  houses  with  boarded  or  plastered  walls,  and 
became  numerous  ir  dwellings  where  the  rooms  were  uncleanly. 
They  were,  in  fact,  the  scavengers  of  dirty  recesses  and  floors,  just 
as  the  brown  rat  is  of  sewers  ;  and  the  extermination  of  the  black 
?at  is  due  to  the  absence  of  the  conditions  which  once  fostered  it 
—not  to  its  having  been  driven  away  by  the  brown  rat. 


118  THE    REASON    WHY 


And  forth  he  goth,  no  longer  would  he  tary, 

Into  the  town  unto  a  potecary, 

And  praied  him  that  he  him  wolde  sell 

Some  poison  that  he  might  his  ratouns  quell." — CHAUCEB. 


367.   Why  is  it  said  that  rats  ahvays  quit  a  falling  house? 

The  popular  saying  is  founded  upon  the  very  obvious  fact  that 
when  houses  become  old  and  tottering,  they  are  abandoned  by 
human  beings,  and  then  the  rate  finding  no  longer  their  usual 
subsistence,  quit  the  tenement  ako. 

368.  But  the  popular  mind  has  thwarted  this  very  palpable  lact  into  a  kind  of 
superstition,  believing  that  rats  have  the  power  of  anticipating  the  sudden  fail  of 
a  house,  and  quitting  it  some  hours  before.  Granting  that  a  rat  were  of  all  animals 
the  most  sensitive  to  coming  changes,  and  that  it  felt  them  in  the  very  dawn  of 
their  existence,  the  fall  of  a  house  does  not  come  within  the  class  of  occurrences 
of  which  the  sensibility  of  the  animal  would  give  it  early  warning.*  In  like  manner 
it  is  said  that  rats  leave  a  sinking  ship  ;  they  have  been  seen  to  do  so  by  walking 
along  the  rope  which  fastened  the  ship  to  the  shore,  but  they  did  this  only  when 
the  water  had  absolutely  forced  them  from  every  other  place. 

369..  Why  is  a  person  shifting  from  one  party  or  from  one 
cause  to  another  said  to  be  "ratting?" 

This  saying  is  founded  on  the  previous  notion  of  rats  deserting 
falling  houses  and  sinking  ships.  It  implies  that  as  the  individual 
can  no  longer  suit  his  own  purposes,  he  deserts  his  former  place  or 
cause.  Tergiversation  of  this  kind,  more  especially  when  it  consists 
in  deserting  one  party  in  its  weakness,  and  going  over  to  the 
opposite  one  in  its  strength  for  the  sake  of  personal  advantage,  is 
invariably  called  "  ratting ;"  and  it  is  held,  and  very  properly  held, 
to  be  the  worst  species  of  political  crime  of  which  a  public  man 
can  be  guilty,  and  characteristic  of  the  very  meanest  cast  of  mind, 
and  lowest  depth  of  political  corruption.* 

370.  Why  may  we  suppose  that  rats  can  communicate  intelligence 
to  each  other  when  they  find  food  ? 

Because  the  depredations  committed  usually  commence  with  one 
rat,  which  soon  afterwards  is  joined  by  other  companions,  and  in 
a  few  days  large  swarms  frequently  appear. 

*  Partington's  "  Cyclopaedia." 


NATURAL   HiS'.ORY. 


119 


"  This  purpose  is  sometimes  carried  on  by  a  sort  of  migratory 
instinct,  some-times  by  the  spirit  of  conquest ;  at  one  time  avarice 
urives  men  from  their  .homes,  at  another  they  are  actuated  by  a 
thirst  of  knowledge." — BURKE. 

371.   Wliy  has  the  hamster  such  enormous  cheek  pouches  ? 
Hamsters    are  a   genus  of    rodent     animals,     remarkable    for 

the  possession  of  cheek 
pouches,  which  in  some 
of  the  species  are  of  con 
siderable  size.  The  one 
figured  in  the  illustra 
tion*  has  pouches  so  large 
that  they  will  hold  a 
quarter  of  a  pint.  These 
pouches  are  useful  us 
stores  of  food  for  the 
^;j\^  -  *  animal,  which  inhabits  the 

sandy  districts  of  the  North 

of  Europe  and  Asia,  Austria,  Silesia,  and  many  parts  of  Germany, 
Poland,  &c.,  is  liable  to  periods  of  deprivation  from  food,  and  also 
undergoes  an  imperfect  winter  hibernation. 

372.  The  quantity  of  grain  which  they  consume  is  very  great.  On  the  approach 
of  winter,  the  hamster  retires  into  his  subterranean  abode,  the  entry  of  which  he 
closes  with  great  care  ;  and  thus,  remaining  tranquil  and  secure,  feeds  on  his  col 
lected  store  till  the  frost  becomes  severe  :  he  then  falls  into  a  profound  slumber. 
It  will  be  seen  that  this  hybernation  differs  from  that  in  which  the  animals  imme- 
di'-t^ly  fall  asleep,  and  either  continue  torpid  during  the  whole  of  the  cold  season, 
or  awake  occasionally  to  partake  of  food.  There  is  a  long  underground  preparation 
for  the  winter  sleep,  during  which  a  considerable  quantity  of  food  is  needed.  Hence 
it  is  that  the  animal  is  provided  with  these  ample  pouches,  which  act  as  panniers 
for  the  conveyance  of  its  winter  food  to  the  place  into  which  it  retires.  The  fur  of 
the  hamster  is  valuable ;  and  the  peasant  who  goes  "  a  hamster  hunting"  obtains  not 
only  the  sl^n  of  the  animal,  but  his  hoard,  which  amounts  to  as  much  as  two 
bushels  of  grain  to  each  magazine. 

373.   Why  do  lemmings  migrate  frrm  their  settlements  ? 

Because  they  multiply  so  rapidly  that  they  experience  a  deficiency 
of  vegetable  food.  They  therefore  set  off  in  large  bodies  in  search 
of  new  grounds  adapted  to  their  habitations,  and  there  they  found 
uew  colonies.  In  this  we  see  a  more  striking  illustration  of  the 


•  Mut  bursariu*. 


120  THE   REASON   WHY: 


It  is  not  iron  bands,  nor  hundred  eyes, 

Nor  brazen  walls,  nor  many  wakeful  skyes, 

That  can  withhold  their  wilful  wandering  feet."— SPENSER. 


instinct  which  prompts  rats  to  quit  an  uninhabited  house,  and  to 
abandon  an  unseaworthy  ship. 

374.  Lemmings  are  allied  to  the  rat  tribes.  There  are  several  species  of  them, 
varying  in  size  and  colour,  according  to  thfl 
regions  they  inhabit.  They  are  found  in 
Norway,  Lapland,  Siberia,  and  the  northern 

f    ~"'7^SxVf  •]'••    <  ^tf&s >*>- ' '•'  •' -  -s  parts  of  America;    those  of  Norway  being 

^xv'.^K^  ,-iSv^v;/.i^' ••Kf /T^A'/"--          nearly  the   size  of  the  water-rat,  and  of  a 
\*K<m  !^^S^!W3:  tawny    colour,    variegated  with  black,    the 

sides    of    the    head    and    the    under    parts 
-^      being  white;    while    those  of  Lapland  and 
^.-"-S,  ^r-^Y<nj^4^-.i£^v/<'.  Siberia    are    scarcely    larger   than    a   field- 

mouse,    and  much    less   distinctly   marked. 

They  subsist  entirely  on  vegetable  food ;  they  form  shallow  burrows,  in 
the  summer  time,  under  the  ground,  and  in  winter  make  long  passages  under  the 
snow  in  search  of  food.  Their  hairy  heads  and  short  ears  and  tails  admirably  adapt 
them  for  the  latter  labour.  Their  migrations  are  not  regularly  periodical,  but  are 
undertaken  at  irregular  epochs — upon  an  average  about  once  in  ten  years. 

The  inclination,  or  instinctive  faculty,  which  induces  them,  with  one  consent,  to 
assemble  from  a  whole  region,  collect  themselves  into  an  army,  and  descend  from 
the  mountains  into  the  neighbouring  plains  in  the  form  of  a  firm  phalanx,  moving 
on  in  a  straight  line,  resolutely  surmounting  every  obstacle,  and  undismayed  by 
every  danger,  cannot  be  contemplated  without  astonishment.  All  who  have 
written  upon  the  subject  agree  that  they  proceed  in  a  direct  course,  so  that  the 
ground  along  which  they  have  passed  appears  at  a  distance  as  if  it  had  been 
ploughed  ;  the  grass  being  devoured  to  the  very  roots  in  numerous  stripes  or 
parallel  paths  of  one  or  two  spans  broad,  and  at  the  distance  of  some  ells  from 
each  other.  This  army  moves  chiefly  by  night,  or  early  in  the  morning,  devouring 
the  herbage  as  it  passes  in  such  a  manner  that  the  surface  appears  to  have  D*ben 
burnt.  No  obstacles  will  materially  alter  their  route ;  neither  fires,  nor  deep 
ravines,  torrents,  marshes,  nor  lakes  ;  they  proceed  obstinately  in  a  right  line,  and 
hence  it  happens  that  many  thousands  perish  in  the  waters,  and  are  found  dead  by 
the  shores.  If  a  rick  of  hay  or  corn  occurs  in  their  passage,  they  eat  through  it ;  but 
if  rocks  intervene  which  they  cannot  pass,  they  go  round,  and  then  resume  their 
former  straight  direction.  If  disturbed  or  pursued  while  swimming  over  a  lake, 
and  their  phalanx  is  scattered  by  oars  and  poles,  they  will  not  recede,  but  keep 
swimming  directly  on,  and  get  into  regular  order  again.  Tk^y  have  evei  been 
kiiown  to  endeavour  to  board,  or  pass  over  a  vessel. 

On  the  passage  overland,  if  attacked  by  men  they  will  raise  themselves  up, 
uttering  a  kind  of  barking  sound,  and  fly  at  the  legs  of  their  invaders ;  and  will 
fasten  so  fiercely  at  the  end  of  a  stick  as  to  suffer  themselves  to  be  swung  about 
before  they  quit  their  hold.  Sometimes  an  intestine  war  breaks  out  in  these 
armies  during  their  march,  when  they  fight  desperately  and  destroy 
each  other. 
On  the  march  they  »~  attacked  by  various  enemies,  and  particularly  by  owls 


NATURAL    HISTOiiY. 


Of  beasts — the  leaver  plods  his  task, 
While  the  sleek  tigers  roll  and  bask, 
Nor  yet  the  shades  arouse." — SMART. 


hawks,  and  weasels,  so  that  but  a  small  proportion  of  their  number  survive  the  penis 
of  their  journey.  In  some  instances  they  have  been  observed,  after  a  lapse  of  time, 
to  return  to  their  native  mountains.  Sometimes  the  females  have  borne  young 
during  their  migration,  and  have  been  seen  carefully  carrying  them  on  their  backs. 
After  crossing  a  stream,  or  an  arm  of  the  sea,  upon  landing  on  the  opposite  bank 
they  halt  to  sun  and  dry  themselves,  and  after  feeding  again  proceed  upon  their 
journey. 

It  was  once  believed  that  these  animals  fell  from  the  clouds  at  particular  seasons; 
and  some  persons  positively  affirmed  that  they  had  seen  a  lemming  fall  from  the 
skies— a  not  improbable  occurrence,  when  it  is  remembered  that  birds  of  prey  follow 
these  troops  on  their  journey,  and,  swooping  down  upon  them,  carry  into  the  air  as 
many  as  their  talons  can  seize.  One  of  these  escaping,  and  falling  to  the  earth, 
would  at  once  give  rise  to  the  above  misconception.  An  eye  witness  once  stood  for 
two  hours  watching  a  multitude  of  lemmings  passing  by. 

375.  Why  have  beavers  remarkably  broad  and  thin  tails? 

Because  they  spend  the 
greater  part  of  their  time  in 
the  water,  and  pursue  a 
busy  life  by  the  side  of 
streams,  and  in  the  small 
mounds  or  islands  formed 
by  meandering  waters.  To 
guide  their  movements  in 
the  variable  eddies  and  cur 
rents  which  they  have  to 
meet,  they  require  a  power 
ful  rudder;  and  this  is 
furnished  by  their  broad,  flat,  and  scaly  tails. 

376.  The  formation  of  their  tails  is  the  more  remarkable,  because,  while  their 
bodies  are  covered  with  fur  so  fine  that  it  constitutes  a  valuable  article  of  commerce, 
their  flattened  tails  are  not  endowed  with  fur,  but  have  scaly  surfaces,  which  render 
their  action  upon  the  water  most  efficient.     (See  377.) 

377.    Why    are     the    incisor     teeth    of     beavers     remarkably 
developed  ? 

Because  they  require  the  branches  and  trunks  of  trees  in  the 
construction  of  their  houses,  and  these   natural  implements   are 
necessary  to  assist  them  in  felling  the  timber.    These  teeth  are 
6 


THE  REASON  WHY: 


"  I  was  surprised  at  all  this  civility,  and  knew  not  to  what  I 
might  ascribe  it,  except  to  my  bright  beaver  and  shining  scarf 
that  were  new  that  day."— THE  TATLZH. 


broad,  flattened,  and  protected  anteriorly  by  a  layer  of  orange- 
coloured  enamel,  the  rest  of  the  tooth  being  of  a  comparatively  soft 
•ubstonce,  where  a  cutting  chisel-like  edge  is  obtained. 


378.  Not  only  does  the  bearer  use  its  teeth  with  wonderful  instinct,  but  the 
method  adopted  in  the  application  of  these  instruments  is  equally  remarkable.  It 
begins  the  business  of  felling  by  gnawing  round'  the  branch  of  a  tree  ;  but,  in  order 
to  save  itself  a  great  deal  of  work,  and  to  overcome  an  otherwise  insuperable 
difficulty — for  it  is  necessary  that  the  branch  should  fall  across  the  stream,  that  it 
may  float  with  the  current — the  beaver  operates  mostly  on  one  side,  and  that  always 
on  the  right  one,  and  gnaws  nearly  through  that  side,  leaving  the  other  almost  un 
touched.  The  branches  cut  down  are  sometimes  of  considerable  thickness,  and  th« 
beavers  select  those  which  stand  up  the  stream,  from  the  place  of  their  habitations-, 
not  those  below  it,  because,  in  the  latter  case,  they  could  not  haul  ^hcnx  up 
against  the  current. 

The  bearer  presents  one  of  the  strongest  instances  of  instinctive  sagacity  a:jd 
industry  which  can  be  met  with  in  the  animal  creation.  It  is  gregarious,  living  in 
societies  of  two  or  three  hundred,  whose  labours  are  employed  for  the  general  goo«l, 
and  their  settlements  are  made  either  in  pond*  so  deep  as  not  to  allow  of  their  bem$r 
frozen  to  the  bottom,  and  which  have  a  stream  of  water  running  through  them,  »vr 
hi  rivers  themselves.  Having  determined  on  the  place  in  which  to  erect  their  habi 
tations,  the  first  business  consists  in  forming  a  dam  ;  and  for  this  purpose  they  stop 
the  stream  in  the  most  favourable  place  for  their  operations.  The  dam  is  raised  by 
driving  stakes  of  five  or  six  feet  length  into  the  ground  at  different  distances,  inter 
weaving  them  with  branches  of  trees,  and  filling  up  the  interstices  with  clay,  stones, 
and  sand,  whick  they  ram  down  very  firmly  with  their  tails  ;  the  foundation  of  the 
dam  is  ten  or  twelve  feet  thick,  the  top  i&  not  more  than  two  or  three  feet  broad, 
presenting  a  perpendicular  face  to  the  stream,  whilst  the  slope  is  placed  on  .the 
outside,  where,  as  grass  grows,  the  dam  is  rendered  more  solid.  In  this  way  they 
build  a  dam  not  unfrequently  a  hundred  feet  in  length.  Within  the  embankment 
near  the  edge  of  the  shore  are  built  the  houses,  which  are  from  ten  to  twenty-five 
in  number  ;  these  are  raised  upon  piles,  and  sometimes  consist  of  two  or  three 
rtories,  for  the  convenience  of  change  in  case  of  ftoods.  The  houses  are  of  a  round 
or  oval  form,  with  a  vaulted  roof;  the  walls  about  two  feet  thick,  formed  of  earth, 
Btones,  and  sticks,  but  neatly  plastered  within,  and  to  each  arc  two  entrances,  one 
towards  the  water,  and  the  othev  facing  the  land.  Their  height  above  the  water  is 
about  eight  feet.  In  one  habitation  reside  from  two  to  thirty  beavers,  each  animal 
having  its  own  bed  of  moss,  and  each  family  its  own  winter  stock  of  provisions, 
consisting  of  the  bark  and  small  branches  of  trees,  which  are  kept  in  the  water  ami 
fetched  within  as  required. 

"To  effect  these  works,"  says  Pennant,  "a  community  of  two  or  three 
hundred  assembles ;  each  bears  his  share  of  the  labour ;  some  fell,  by  gnawing  with 
their  teeth,  trees  of  great  size;  to  forra  beauis  or  piles .  these  are  gnawed  all  round 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  123 


His  beaver  brushed,  his  shoes  and  gown, 
Away  he  trudges  into  town." — SWIFT. 


in  as  regular  a  manner  as  a  cutter  cuts  in  felling  a  tree,  bringing  the  bottom  of  the 
wood  to  a  point ;  others  roll  the  pieces  along  to  the  water,  others  dive  and  with 
their  feet  scrape  holes,  in  order  to  place  them  in,  while  others  exert  their  efforts 
to  rear  them  in  their  proper  places  ;  another  party  is  employed  in  collecting  twigs 
to  wattle  the  piles  with ;  a  third  collecting  earth,  stones,  and  clay ;  a  fourth  is 
busied  in  beating  and  tempering  the  mortar ;  others  in  carrying  it  on  their  broad 
tails  to  proper  places,  and  with  the  same  instrument  run  it  between  the  piles,  or 
plaster  the  inside  of  their  houses.  Whilst  at  work,  one  of  the  party  acts  as  an 
overseer,  and  by  striking  his  tail  indicates  which  parts  are  weakest.  A  certain 
number  of  smart  strokes  with  the  tail  is  a  signal  given  by  the  overseers  for 
repairing  to  such  or  such  places,  either  for  mending  any  defects,  or  at  the 
approach  of  an  enemy ;  and  the  whole  society  attend. 

379.  Wliy  are  the  hind  fed  of  the  beaver   far  Idler  adapted 
for   swimming  than  the  front  ones  ? 

Because  when  making  way  through  lakes  and  streams '  it  has 
frequently  to  use  the  fore  feet  for  purposes  not  connected  with 
swimming,  but  to  assist  in  holding,  directing,  or  propelling  the 
billets  of  wood,  or  such  other  matters  as  the  animal  may  have 
gathered,  either  for  building  or  for  food.  The  beaver  has  the 
swimming  power  more  highly  developed  in  its  hind  feet  than 
has  any  other  quadruped. 

380.  Why    do    beavers    build    their    dams    sometimes    straight 
across  the  stream,  and  at  other  times  in  an  oblique  direction  ? 

When  the  current  is  slow  the  dam  is  carried  straight  across  ;  but 
if  the  current  be  rapid,  the  dam  is  carried  in  an  oblique  line.  The 
dam  straight  across  is  the  shortest  possible,  and,  therefore,  costs 
the  least  labour  ;  but  it  is  the  one  upon  which  an  equal  volume 
and  velocity  of  water  would  act  most  powerfully  ;  therefore  it  is 
used  in  those  cases  where  the  force  of  the  current  is  least.  The 
oblique  dam  requires  more  labour  in  its  construction,  because  it 
must  be  longer  for  the  same  breadth  of  the  river  ;  but  as  the  action 
of  the  water  upon  it  diminishes  in  proportion  to  the  obliquity  with 
which  the  current  meets  it,  it  resists  better  than  the  straight  dam, 
and  its  resistance  increases  with  its  obliquity  ;  therefore  it  is  used 
against  the  more  rapid  and  powerful  currents. 


124  THE   KEASON    WHY  I 


"  Make  thy  fovo  eyes,  like  stars,  start  from  their  spheres ; 
Thy  knotted  and  combined  locks  to  part, 
And  each  particular  hair  to  stand  on  end, 
Like  quills  upon  the  fretful  porcupine." — SHAKSPERE. 

381.   Why  are  beaver  hats  commonly  called  "castors?" 

Because  they  are  made  from  the  fur  of  the  beaver,  the  animal,  in 
zoological  nomenclature,  being  called  the  castor  fiber,  from  the 
Greek  name  castor,  and  the  Latin  fiber,  because  it  inhabits  the 
of  the  water. 


382.  Why  has  the  coypou,  though  identical  with  the  beaver  in 
many  of  its  habits,  a  dissimilar  tail  1 

It    has     already     been     explained    that    the    broad    flat    tail 

of  the  beaver,  as  well  as 
being  used  as  a  rudder,  is  em 
ployed  by  the  animal  in  the 
construction  of  dams  and  houses. 
Now,  the  coypou  differs  from 
the  beaver  in  this  respect,  that 
it  never  builds,  but  burrows; 
nor  does  it  construct  dams. 
For  a  burrowing  animal,  the 
broad  flat  tail  would  be  not  only  of  no  utility,  but  a  positive 
incumbrance,  and  hence  the  organ  is  modified  to  the  uses  of 
the  creature. 

383.  Why    is    the   porcupine    covered    with    such    formidable 
quills  ? 

As  in  the  case  of  the  hedge-hog,  the  spines  of  the  porcupine  are 
weapons  of  defence,  the  animal  having  the  same  power  of  rolling 
itself  into  the  form  of  a  ball.  Why  the  spines  of  the  hedge-hog 
should  be  so  short,  and  those  of  the  porcupine  so  long,  may  find 
explanation  in  the  fact  that  the  latter,  being  a  native  of  Africa, 
India,  and  the  Indian  Islands,  is  exposed  to  the  atticks  of  far 
more  formidable  enemies  than  such  as  the  cat,  the  weasel,  the 
ferret,  and  the  martin,  by  which  the  hedge-hog  is  attacked.  The 
porcupine  is  so  called  from  porcus  (a  pig),  and  spinis  (prickles 
or  thorns). 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  125 


Well — one  at  least  is  safe.     Our  sbelter'd  hare 

Has  never  heard  the  sanguinary  yell 

Of  cruel  man  exulting  in  her  woes." — COWPER. 


384.  Why  do  hares   when  pursued  generally  make  for    rising 
ground  ? 

Because  the  length  of  their  hind  legs,  as  compared  with  thoir 
front  ones,  gives  them  a  great  advantage  in  ascending  an  inclined 
surface. 

385.  Why  do  hares  run  down  hill  in  a  zig-zag  course  ? 
Because  the   length  of  their  hind   legs,   which  gives   them  an 

advantage  over  their  pursuers  in  ascending  a  hill,  is  a  disadvantage 
to  them  when  descending.  They  therefore  modify  the  line  of 
descent  by  making  a  series  of  diagonal  runs. 

386.  Hares  are  remarkable  for  their  extreme  timidity;  but  their  inability  to 
save  themselves  from  the  attacks  of  their  enemies  has  been  in  some  degree  compen 
sated  by  their  endowments  for  speed.  When  they  run,  their  motions  consist  of  a 
series  of  leaps  more  or  less  extended  according  to  the  speed  with  which  they  move. 
Indeed  the  animals  of  this  genus  make  a  near  approach  in  their  general  form,  their 
gait  when  walking,  and  their  mode  of  life  to  the  kanguroos.  The  length  and 
strength  of  their  hir.J  legs  very  much  exceeds  that  of  their  front ;  they  are  further 
assisted  by  the  extreme  flexibility  of  their  spines,  which  enables  them  to  bring  the 
hind  feet'even  before  the  front,  and  thereby  throw  the  body  forward  with  a  mucli 
stronger  and  greater  spring.  To  give  an  idea  of  the  prodigious  leaps  they  make, 
it  may  be  here  mentioned  that  a  hare  has  been  known  to  pass  over  a  space  of 
twenty-five  feet  at  a  single  bound.  This  structure,  though  well  adapted  for  moving 
on  a  level  surface,  and  much  more  for  going  up  a  hill,  is  disadvantageous  for  descent ; 
and,  caiii-iequently,  if  a  hare  descend  a  steep  place  at  speed,  she  may  be  noticed 
rolling  over  and  over  frequently  before  she  reaches  the  bottom.* 

387.  Why  is  the  hare  unable  to  run  well  upon  fallows  and 
wet  soils? 

Because  hares  are  unprovided  with  the  smooth  elastic  padding 
which  covers  the  soles  of  the  feet  of  dogs  and  other  quadrupeds, 
they  are  hairy-footed,  which  renders  them  ill-adapted  for  speed 
upon  wet  and  adhesive  soils.  When  left  to  choose  their  own 
track,  they  always  select  a  dry  one  for  treading  on  ;  and  it  is  plain 
that  their  hairy  socks  admirably  adapt  their  feet  to  resist  the  ill 
effects  of  pressure  from  the  rough  surfaces  they  must  pass  over  by 
this  preference. 

•  "  Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana." 


126  THE    REASON   WHY  : 

"  The  hare, 

Tho'  timorous  of  heart,  and  hard  beset 
By  death  in  various  forms,  dark  snares,  and  dogs, 
And  more  unpitying  men,  the  garden  seeks, 
Urg'd  on  by  fearless  want." — THOMSON. 

388.  Wliy  is  the  hare,  though  more  fled  than  the  fox,  generally 
the  soonest  caught? 

Because  when  the  hare  is  started,  she  frequently  exhausts  herself 
by  her  excessive  efforts  to  immediately  escape.  The  fox,  on  the 
contrary,  less  timid  than  the  hare,  breaks  away  only  at  a  moderate 
speed,  which  gradually  increases  as  he  finds  himself  pressed  by 
the  hounds. 

389.  Why    is    the    hare    generally    lean,  while    rabbits    are 
frequently  fat  ? 

The  habitual  timidity  of  the  hare,  and  its  perpetual  apprehen 
sion  of  danger,  preserve  it  in  a  lean  state  ;  but  rabbits,  having  safe 
places  of  retreat  in  their  burrows,  are  less  influenced  by  fear,  and 
are  called  upon  for  less  exertion  to  escape  from  danger.  It  may 
also  be  observed  that  the  leanness  of  the  hare,  which  is  caused  by 
its  timidity,  is  the  condition  of  body  best  adapted  for  flight 
irom  danger. 

390.  Of  the  great  speed  of  which  the  hare  is  capable,  some  idea  may  be  gathered 
from  the  following  facts  : — In  February,  1800,  a  brace  of  greyhounds,  in  Lincoln 
shire,  ran  a  hare  from  her  seat  to  where  she  was  killed,  a  distance,  measuring 
straight,  upwards  of  four  miles,  in  twelve  minutes.  During  the  course  there  were 
a  great  number  of  turns,  which  very  considerably  increased  the  space  gone  over. 
The  hare  ran  herself  dead  before  the  greyhounds  touched  her. 

391.  Why  is  the  cavity  of  the  chest  of  the  young  hare  larger 
than  the  contained  lungs? 

The  condition  of  the  lungs  of  the  hare  are  liable  to  extreme 
variation.  When  the  animal  sits  upon  its  form  in  an  inactive  state 
for  many  hours,  the  lungs  are  comparatively  passive  ;  but  when 
chased,  the  lungs  are  in  a  continual  state  of  violent  expan 
sion  and  contraction.  This  ultimately  increases  the  size  of  the 
lungs,  which,  in  the  old  hare,  will  be  found  to  fill  the  entire  cavity 
of  the  chest. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


"  You  are  the  hare  nf  whom  the  proverb  goes, 
Whose  valour  plucks  dead  ii<r.is  by  the  beard."— SHAKSPEARE. 

"  The  prowling  fox, 
Whose  nightly  murders  thiii  the  bleating  fold." — DODSLEV. 

392.  Why  are,  the   ears  of   hare*  unusually  long,   and  capable 
of  more  varied  motion  than  those  of  most  other  animals? 

Tliis  fact  illustrates  a  prin 
ciple  in  the  great  design 
observable  in  nature,  referring 
to  many  animals,  but  to  the 
hare  in  particular. 

The  external  ears  of  animals 
of  flight  are  turned  backwards 
to  give  notice  of  the  approach 
of  an  enemy  from  behind, 
whence  he  may  steal  upon 
them  unseen  ;  while  the  ears 
of  beasts  of  prey,  such  as 
lions,  tigers,  wolves,  foxes, 
&c.,  have  their  trumpet  part 
standing  forwards,  to  seize 
the  sounds  whioh  are  before 
them  ;  viz~,  the  sounds  of  the 
animals  which  they  pursue. 

The  ears  of  the  hare  are  long,  and  stand  erect  when  the  animal 
is  listening.  Upon  other  occasions,  when  concealment  is  necessary, 
they  lie  down  close  upon  the  animal's  back.  When  being  hunted, 
and  well  a-head  of  the  hounds,  the  hare  will  frequently  throw  one 
ear  forward  and  the  other  backward,  that  it  may  discriminate 
not  only  whence  to  fly  but  whither  to  go. 

393.  The  anatomy  of  the  internal  ear  also  favours  its  reception  of  sounds  from 
•very  dii  action.    The  auditive  canal  is  in  part  soft,  and  in  part  bony,  so  tnat  the 
tube  may  be  turned  iu  the  direction  of   the  outer  ear.    In  general  the  ears  are 
naked,  or  very  thinly  covered  with  short  hairs     »nd  the  membranes  of  which  they 
tre  composed  are  so  thin  that  they  are  nearly  transparent. 

In  order  to  enable  this  creature  to  perceive  the  most  distant  approaches  of  danger, 
nature  has  provided  it  with  these  very  long  ears,  which,  like  tubes  applied  to  the 
auditory  organs  of  deaf  persons,  convey  to  it  such  sounds  as  are  remote  ;  and  the 
motions  of  the  hare  are  directed  accordingly.  Its  large  prominent  eyes  being  placed 
«o  far  backward  as  to  receive  tite  rays  of  light  oa  every  side,  it  can  almost  see 


128  THE   REASON  WHY: 


"  What  man  art  them  ?  quod  he, 
Thou  lokest  as  thou  woldest  find  an  hare, 
For  ever  on  the  ground  I  see  thee  stare." — CHAVCEE.' 


distinctly  behind  -while  it  runs  directly  forward.  The  muscles  of  its  body  being 
strong,  and  unencumbered  with  fat,  it  has  no  superfluous  burden  of  flesh  to  carry  ; 
and  to  assist  it  in  escaping  from  its  pursuers,  the  hinder  legs  are  considerably  longer 
than  the  fore,  which  adds  to  the  svriftness  of  its  motions.  When  the  hare  hears  the 
hounds  at  a  distance,  it  flies  for  some  time  from  a  natural  impulse,  till  having  gained 
some  hill  or  rising  ground,  and  left  the  dogs  so  far  behind  that  their  cries  no  longer 
reach  its  ears,  it  stops,  rears  on  its  hinder  legs,  and  looks  back  for  the  purpose  of 
satisfying  itself  whether  its  enemies  are  still  in  sight  or  not ;  but  the  dogs  having 
once  gained  the  scent,  trace  it  with  united  and  unerring  skill;  and  the  poor  animal 
Boon  again  receives  indications  of  their  approach.  Sometimes,  when  hard  hunted, 
it  will  start  a  fresh  hare,  and  squat  in  the  same  form  ;  at  others,  it  will  creep  under 
the  door  of  a  sheep-cot,  and  conceal  itself  among  the  sheep  ;  sometimes  it  will  entor 
a  hole  like  the  rabbit ;  at  others,  it  will  creep  up  one  side  of  a  quickset  hedge,  and 
down  the  other ;  and  it  has  been  known  to  ascend  the  top  of  a  cut  edge  and  run  a 
considerable  way,  by  which  stratagem  it  has  effectually  evaded  the  hounds.  It  is 
also  not  unusual  for  the  hare  to  betake  itself  to  furze  bushes,  and  leap  from  one  to 
another,  whereby  the  dogs  are  frequently  misled  ;  and  as  it  swims  well,  and  takes 
the  water  readily,  it  will  cross  a  river  with  the  same  intent,  if  it  has  the  opportu 
nity.  It  may  be  observed,  however,  that  the  first  doubling  which  a  hare  makes 
generally  affords  a  key  to  all  its  future  attempts  of  that  kind,  the  latter  exactly 
resembling  the  former.  The  hare  is  a  short-lived  animal,  and  is  supposed  rarely  to 
exceed  the  term  of  seven  or  eight  years.  Its  voice,  which  is  seldom  heard  but  in  the 
distress  of  sudden  surprise,  or  when  wounded,  resembles  the  sharp  cry  of  an 
infant.  Its  enemies  are  numerous  and  powerful.  Every  species  of  the  dog  kind 
pursues  it  by  instinct ;  the  cat  and  the  weasel  tribes  exercise  all  their  arts  to  ensnare 
it ;  and  birds  of  prey,  snakes,  adders,  &e.,  drive  it  from  its  form,  particularly  during/ 
the  summer  season ;  these,  with  the  more  destructive  pursuits  of  mankind,  con 
tribute  to  thin  the  number  of  these  animals,  which  from  their  prolific  nature  would 
otherwise  multiply  to  an  extravagant  degree.* 

394.  Why  do  rabbits  burrow,  while  hares  make  forms  upon 
the  surface? 

The  burrowing  of  the  rabbit  is  an  instinctive  contrivance  conse 
quent  upon  its  defective  speed.  The  rabbit  cannot  outrun  its 
enemies,  therefore  it  obtains  immunity  from  attack  by  contriving 
a  retreat  in  the  ground. 

Another  distinction  renders  this  difference  of  habit  necessary: 
the  eyes  of  young  hares  are  open  at  birth,  and  the  dam  suckles 
them  only  for  about  twenty  days,  when  they  leave  her  and  procure 
their  own  subsistence.  Young  rabbits  are  born  blind,  art*  very 

•  "Maunder's  Treasury  Nat.  History."  <* 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  129 


'  Never  mole,  hare-lip,  nor  scarrc, 
Nor  make  prodigous,  such  as  are."—  SHAKSPERE. 


scantily  covered  with  hair,  and  for  nearly  six   weeks   the   doe 
continues  to  suckle  them. 

395.  It  is  a  curious  circumstance  that  the  individuals  composing  this  genus 
present  very  great  differences  in  their  habits.  Some,  as  the  hare,  aro  found 
throughout  the  day  resting  oa  one  particular  spot,  frequently  in  a  kind  of  arbour 
formed  of  the  high  rank  grass  occasionally  scattered  over  fields ;  at  other  times  in 
hs  dgerows,  or  against  a  clod  of  earth,  but  never  attempting  to  burrow  ;  others,  as 
the  rabbit,  are  most  expert  miners,  sinking  long  galleries,  without  any  regular 
order,  in  which  they  rest  during  the  day,  and  bring  up  their  young ;  and  it  is  said 
that  the}7  never  forsake  the  burrow  which  they  have  once  inhabited ;  whilst,  again, 
others  make  nests  and  squat  either  amongst  heaps  of  large,  loose  stones,  or  in  the 
clefts  of  rocks,  seeming  to  have  a  disposition  to  live  in  holes,  without  taking  the 
trouble  of  burrowing.  It  is  a  very  curious  fact  with  regard  to  rabbits,  that  if  once 
domesticated,  they  lose  this  disposition  to  burrow,  and  the  produce  of  tame  rabbits 
d.)  not  attempt  such  a  proceeding.  Mr.  Barrington  accounts  for  this  by  supposing 
that  they  do  not  burrow  because  not  previously  taught  by  the  old  rabbits.  This 
may  be  the  reason,  in  some  degree.  We  have  all  witnessed  the  efforts  of  an  old  cat 
to  teach  its  kittens  to  catch  mice  ;  and,  although  kittens  not  so  instructed  still  retain 
the  instinct  to  seize  their  natural  prey,  doubtless  those  that  are  properly  instructed 
become  the  best  mousers. 

396.  Why  is  a    divided    Up    in    the    human  being  called  a 
"  hare-lip  ?  " 

Because  the  upper  lip  of  the  hare  is  slit  or  divided  on  the  mesial 
line  ;  and  from  its  resemblance  to  this,  the  divided  lip,  when  it 
occurs  in  the  human  being,  is  so  called. 

397.  Why  is   it  commonly  said  that  persons  of  flighty  conduct 
are  "  mad  as  March  hares  ?  " 

Because  in  the  month  of  March  hares  are  characterised  by 
greater  activity  and  boldness  than  at  other  times.  It  is  their 
rutting  season  ;  the  male  pursues  the  female  by  the  sagacity  of  its 
nose,  and  when  following  the  scent  appears  to  lose  its  usual 
timidity  and  sagacity.  The  country,  too,  is  dry,  and  in  the  best 
state  for  the  running  of  the  hare  ;  and  the  leverets  of  the  last 
season  have  acquired  strength  and  agility. 

398.  Why  is  the  hare  so  called  ? 

It  is  suggested  that  the  name  arises  from  the  declaration 
of  P^ny  that  the  hare  is  the  "'hairiest  creature  of  all  others."  Ic 

6* 


1 30  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


Thus  gay,  the  hare  with  many  friends, 
Twice  seven  long  years  the  court  attends; 
Who,  under  tales  conveying  truth, 
To  virtue  formed  a  princely  youth."— SWIFT. 

is  not  improbable  that  the  noun  is  of  the  same  origin  as  the  verb 
to  hare,  and  that  the  name  was  given  to  the  animal  because  it  i« 
harried,  or  pursued  by  harriers. 

399.  Why  do   hares    leap  to   and  fro   before  they  jump  upon 
their  forms  ? 

Because  their  instinct  tells  them  that  their  enemies  pursue  them 
by  scent.  Hares  themselves  pursue  their  kind  by  scent,  and  being 
practised  in  the  exercise  of  that  faculty,  must  know  that  a  leap 
from  the  ground  breaks  the  trail.  Hence,  when  they  lay  themselves 
up  for  the  day,  they  do  not  run  in  a  direct  line  to  their  seat,  but 
work  around  it,  and  when  near  enough  make  a  spring  by  which 
they  reach  their  form.  In  like  manner,  when  pursued  they  will 
sometimes  throw  themselves  up  by  springing,  and  then  remain 
still  on  the  spot  upon  which  they  alight ;  and  rabbits  do 
the  same. 

400.  The  doublings  of  the  hare,  before  she  goes  to  form,  thereby  to  dodge  and 
deceive  the  dogs,  is  a  notable  instinct  for  an  animal  less  famed  for  cunning  than 
the  fox  and  some  others.      The  means  of  defence  and  escape   provided   by  the 
Creator  for  various  animals  are  worthy  of  consideration.     Some  are  sufficiently 
guarded  against  all  common  dangers  by  their  natural  clothing,  by  their  armature 
of  shells,  or  such  like  hard   and  impregnable   covering  of  their  body.    Others, 
destitute  of  this  guard,  are  armed,  some  with  horns,  some  with  *r>arp  quills  and 
prickles,  some  with  claws,  others  with  stings.     Some  can  shift  and  change  their 
colours,  some  can  make  their  escape  by  the  help  of  their  wings,  and  others  by  the 
swiftness  of  their  feet ;  some  can  screen  themselves  by  diving  beneath  the  waters, 
others  by  tinging  and  disordering  the  waters  can  make  their  escape  ;  some  by  their 
accurate  sight,  smell,  or  hearing,  can  foresee  dangers ;  others  by  their  natural  craft 
can  prevent  or  escape  them  ;  and  some  even  by  the  power  of  their  excrements  can 
deter  their  enemies  from  pursuing  them.* 

Nature  appears  to  have  gifted  the  hare  with  some  singularly  preservative 
properties,  of  which  her  diversified  tintings  offer  a  proof;  these  so  harmoniously 
blend  wtfh  the  matters  which  surround  her  as  to  make  her  escape  from  all  but  the 
practised  eye  very  common.  It  is  not  that  she  lies  concealed  by  cover;  on  the 
contrary,  she  frequently  forms  on  the  loo  side  of  a  clod  in  a  ploughed  field,  and  yet, 
although  so  situated,  her  mass  looks  so  shapeless  that  she  is,  by  those  not 
habituated  to  look  for  her,  more  frequently  passed  over  than  discovered.  Her  ears 

*  Derham's  "Physico  Theologv." 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


"  Immortal  maid  ! 

I  own  thy  presence,  and  confess  thy  aid  ; 
Not  fear,  thou  know'st,  withholds  me  from  the  plains, 
Nor  sloth  has  seized  me,  but  thy  word  restrains."  —  POPE. 

also  are  so  mobile  that  she  can  take  in  sounds  from  every  quarter  ;  her  eyes  am 
never  sbut,  and  although  she  without  doubt  sleeps,  yet  her  visual  organs  are  so 
framed  as  never  to  be  veiled,  and  her  sleep  is  also  so  light  as  to  instantaneously 
communicate  through  them  and  her  ears  the  approach  of  danger.  If  discovered, 
her  speed  would  in  most  eases  save  her  from  common  foes  ;  but  she  is  assailed  on 
one  part  by  clogs  artificially  bred  with  superior  scenting  powers,  or  on  the  othei 
with  such  as,  though  almost  scentless,  are  fleet  as  the  wind.  —  Poor  puss  !  !  * 

401.  Why  are  the  eyes  of  hares  never  closed  ? 

Because  they  are  unprovided  with  eye-lids.  Instead  thereof 
they  have  a  thin  membrane  which  covers  the  eye  when  asleep,  and 
probably,  also,  when  at  rest.  This  membrane  (like  that  which  will 
hereafter  be  described  in  connection  with  certain  birds)  folds 
like  a  curtain  in  the  corner  of  the  eye,  and  by  an  instantaneous 
action  flies  back,  when  sight  is  required,  and  leaves  the  eye 
immediately  and  fully  open  for  the  exercise  of  sight 

ORDER  VI.  —  EDENTATA. 

402.  Wliy  is  the  sixth  order  of  animals  named  Edentata  ? 

Because  they  are  toothless  ;  the  name  being  derived  from  the 
Latin  edentatus,  deprived  of  teeth. 

Although  this  order  includes  animals  which  differ  widely  in  their 
habits,  they  all  agree  in  the  absence  of  teeth  from  the  front  jaw  ; 
all  resemble  eachot  her  in  the  great  claws  which  encompass  the 
ends  of  their  toes  ;  and  they  are  distinguished  by  remarkable  slow 
ness,  or  want  of  activity,  arising  from  the  peculiar  organisation  of 
their  limbs. 

403.  IVTiy  is  the  AI,  or  sloth,  so  called  ? 

Because  it  utters  a  peculiarly  plaintive  note,  of  which  the  sound 
of  the  vowels  ai  is  a  close  imitation. 

404.  Wliy   do    sloths  utter  this   sound  upon  the  approach  of 
storms  ? 

Because  storms  refresh  the  foliage  upon  which  they  feed,  and 

•  Bl-cne's  "Rural  Sports," 


132  THE   REASON   WiIY  : 


"  F->r  all  he  did  was  to  deceive  good  knights, 
And  draw  them  from  pursuit  of  praise  and  fame, 
To  slug  in  slouth  and  sensual  delights, 
And  end  their  daies  with  irrenowned  shame." — SPENSER. 

pat  the  sloths  in  motion  to  seek  their  cool  and  moistened  meal. 
During  the  day  they  suspend  themselves  in  a  motionless  state 
beneath  the  branches  of  trees ;  but  when  the  cooler  night 
approaches,  and  the  leaves  are  covered  with  dew,  they  rouse  and 
regale  themselves.  Their  note  is,  therefore,  an  expression  of  joy, 
which  is  heightened  on  the  approach  of  a  storm. 

405.  Why  is  the  sloth,  and  some  other  animals,  enabled  to  exist 
throughout  the  winter  without  food  or  motion  ? 

At  the  end  of  autumn,  from  the  abundant  supply  of  food  which 
these  animals  are  able  to  procure,  they  retire  to  their  winter 
retreats  loaded  with  fat.  This  serves  as  a  reservoir  of  nourishment 
adequate  to  the  supply  of  the  small  expenditure  that  takes 
place  during  their  torpid  state.  On  the  return  of  spring,  they 
are  aroused  from  their  lethargy,  the  fat  being  generally 
greatly  diminished. 

406.  I'i  animals  thus  circumstanced  voluntary  motion  is  altogether  suspended,  so 
also  in  .he  process  of  digestion  ;  several  of  the  secretions  are  suppressed,  as  the 
saliva  and  gastric  juice,  &c.,  the  senses  are  likewise  sealed  up,  and  the  circulation 
is  diminished.  The  hamster,  in  which  the  pulse  beats  150  per  minute  in  a  state  of 
activity,  has  it  reduced  to  15  in  its  torpid  condition.  The  dormouse,  whose  pulse 
is  so  rapid  as  scarcely  to  he  counted  when  in  its  ordinary  state,  has  it  reduced  to 
the  same  low  standard  when  torpid.  Respiration  is  also  affected  in  a  remarkable 
degree,  not  only  in  the  number,  but  in  the  fulness  and  regularity  of  recurrence. 
Marmots  in  a  state  of  health  and  activity,  perform  about  500  respirations  in  an 
hour,  but  in  the  torpid  state  these  occur  only  fourteen  times  during  the  same 
period,  a  id  are  performed  at  intervals  of  four  or  five  minutes  absolute  rest ;  neither 
is  the  chest  enlarged  to  any  considerable  extent.  Sensibility  is  much  diminished  ; 
parts  of  the  limbs  may  be  cut  off  without  the  animal  showing  any  signs  of  feeling. 

407.  .Why,  although  the  sloth  is  apparently  ill  provided  with 
the  means  of  defence  and  of  procuring  its  food,  is  it  in  reality 
well  provided  for  these  exigencies  ? 

Because,  in  the  first  place,  their  long  shaggy  hair  defends  them 
from  the  insects  which  in  the  climate  they  inhabit  are  so  trouble 
some  ;  and,  in  the  next  place,  the  texture  of  its  coat  is  very  peculiar, 
viorc  resembling  dry  hay,  or  grass  shrivelled  and  withered  by  the 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  133 


Still,  with  your  voice,  the  slothful  soldiers  raise, 

Urge,  by  thy  father's  fame,  their  future  praise." — POPE'S  HOMER. 


sun,  than  the  hair  of  ordinary  quadrupeds  ;  and  its  appearance  so 
much  resembles  that  of  the  bark  and  moss  of  the  branches  on  which 
it  lives  as  to  prevent  the  animal  from  being  easily  detected, 
except  when  moving. 

408.  Why  is  it  erroneous  to  consoler  the  sloth  an  aivkwardly- 
formed  animal,  and  unfit  for  locomotion  ? 

Becauso  the  shortness  of  its  hind  legs,  and  the  extraordinary 
length  of  the  arms  and  claws,  although  they  impede  the  progress 
of  the  animal  upon  level  ground,  are  peculiarly  calculated  to  assist 
it  in  climbing  among  the  branches  of  trees,  where  the  sloth  finds 
food,  and  rests  secure  from  his  enemies. 

409.  If  the  sloth  can  with  his  claws  reach  the  branch  or  rough  bark  of  a  tree  then 
will  his  progress  be  rapid ;  he  will  climb  hand  over  hand  along  the  branches  till 
they  touch,  thus  getting  from  bough  to  bough,  and  from  tree  to  tree  ;  in  the  storm 
he  is  most  alive ;  it  is  when  the  wind  blows,  and  the  trees  stoop,  and  the  branches 
wave,  that  he  is  most  active. 

410.  Why  have  sloths  great  difficulty  in  walking  on  the 
ground  ? 

This  difficulty  arises  from  the  peculiar  structure  of  their  feet ; 
their  hind  ones  are  much  smaller  and  shorter  than  their  fore  feet, 
and  they  are  articulated  somewhat  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  the 
handed  animals  which  are  the  most  expert  climbers.  In  conse 
quence  of  this,  the  side  of  the  hind  foot  and  part  of  the  leg  come 
in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  the  animal  cannot  walk  but  with 
the  greatest  difficulty.  The  toes,  which  are  two  on  the  fore  feet  of 
the  one  and  three  on  those  of  the  other,  are  united  together  so  as 
to  form  one  single  piece,  and  have  no  division  of  the  foot  except 
the  claws,  which  are  long  and  crooked,  and  remain  bent  like  hooks 
by  the  action  of  ligaments,  except  when  the  animal  stretches  them 
out  by  muscular  exertion,  which  appears  to  be  a  slow  and  painfuJ 
operation* 


134 


THE    REASON   WHY  : 


"  The  first  point  of  slwth  I  coll 
Lachesse,  and  is  the  chief  of  all, 
And  hath  this  property  of  kiade 
To  leven  everything  bbhinde."— GOWER. 


411,  From  this  structure  the  slotb 
is  entirely  helpless  on  the  ground ;  but 
among  the  branches  of  a  tree,  where  it 
catches  by  the  feet,  and  suspends  itself 
without  the  least  exertion  or  fatigue 
this  animal  is  as  completely  at  home, 
and  as  beautifully  adapted  to  its  place  in 
nature,  as  the  fleetest  creature  which 
sports  in  the  meadow,  or  bounds  over 
the  heath.  The  sloth  is  decidedly  the 
best  climber  among  mammals,  though 
upon  the  ground  it  is  the  worst  walker. 


412.  How  is    the  supply   of  blood    in    the    legs    of  climbing 
animals  specially  regulated  for  the  purpose  ? 

In  animals  which  are  the  best  climbers  and  the  worst  walkers, 
the  arteries  which  supply  the  limbs  with  blood  are  divided  into  a 
number  of  small  branches,  which  branches  are  again  united  to  form 
the  principal  artery  of  the  limb.  This  structure  renders  the  circu 
lation  in  the  limbs  much  slower  than  that  in  the  body,  and  as  both 
the  energy  and  exhaustion  of  an  animal,  or  part  of  an  animal,  are 
in  proportion  to  the  rapidity  of  the  circulation,  the  legs  of  the  sloth 
and  animals  of  a  similar  character,  though  moved  with  extreme 
slowness,  may  be  regarded  as  possessing  greater  power  of  endurance 
than  any  other  organs  among  vertebrated  animals. 

413.  In   what  respect    is    the  form   of    the    sloth    remarkably 
adapted  to  the  localities  ivhich  it  inhabits? 

Wherever  the  earth  is  green,  there  are  browsing  animals 
appointed  to  consume  the  pasturage  or  the  foliage,  and  to  aid 
the  great  scheme  of  nature  in  its  successional  changes. 

In  the  trophical  forests,  the  green  is  not  upon  the  surface  of 
:he  ground,  but  upon  the  tops  of  trees  ;  and  the  browsing  animals 
destined  to  consume  it,  must  have  an  inverted  position  to  enable 
them  to  make  the  foliage  of  the  trees  their  pasture. 

A  pasture  suspended  in  the  air  must  have   those  which  feed 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  135 


;  So  she  him  lefte,  and  did  her?elfe  betake 
Unto  her  boat  again,  with  which  she  clefte 
The  slouthful  wave  of  that  great  griesy  lake." — SPENSER. 


upon  it  suspended  in  the  same  element ;  and  they  cannot  be 
placed  above  the  leaves,  because  the  latter  afford  no  footing  for  an 
animal  in  size  adequate  to  the  consumption  it  is  necessary  to  accom 
plish  :  they  are,  therefore,  suspended  beneath  the  foliage,  and  in 
this  manner  they  are  brought  in  closer  connection  with  the 
branches,  which  alone  could  afford  them  support. 

414.  In  what  respect  are  the  habits  of  the  sloth,  as  well  at 
being  adapted  to  its  own  wants,  in  accordance  with  those  of 
external  nature  ? 

The  sloth  inhabits  the  deep,  extensive,  and  luxuriant  forests 
of  South  America,  in  which  the  trees  are  of  giant  growth,  always 
green,  and  so  close  that  rarely  a  beam  of  the  vertical  sun 
reaches  the  earth  ;  they  extend  over  districts  so  wide,  and  so 
festooned  and  interlaced  with  twining  plants,  that  winds,  which 
would  level  a  single  tree  to  the  ground,  barely  agitate  their 
tops,  or  disfigure  a  few  on  the  sides  of  the  openings. 

In  order  that  there  may  be  seeds,  and  successions  of  races  in 
those  luxuriant  forests,  it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be 
consumers  of  the  superabundant  foliage,  which  otherwise  would 
completely  exclude  the  sun  and  air,  and  the  forest  would  perish 
of  excess  of  its  own  exuberance,  leaving  the  naked  and  carpetless 
earth  to  be  converted,  by  the  fervour  of  the  tropical  sun,  into 
an  arid  waste,  upon  which  no  living  thing  could  exist. 

If  the  forests  were  to  be  destroyed  in  this  manner,  or,  indeed, 
in  any  way  but  one  in  which  their  place  should  be  occupied  by  a 
close  surface  of  vegetation,  the  rain  would  depart  also,  and  the 
land  would  be  put  beyond  the  power  of  human  skill  and  labour 
to  bring  it  back  to  usefulness,  either  for  himself,  or  for  any  other 
living  creature.  "  Once  a  desert,  always  a  desert "—  untie  one  of 
those  mightier  movements  of  nature,  of  which  the  records  are 
written  in  the  strata  of  the  deepest  mines  and  the  loftiest 
mountains,  break  the  rain  to  pieces,  and  mould  and  temper  its 
elements  anew.* 

•  Partingtou's  "  Cyclopaedia." 


1 36  THE   REASON  WHY  : 


Weariness  can  snore  upon  flint, 

When  resty  sloth  finds  the  down  pillow  hard." — SHAKSPERE. 


415.  Mr.  Waterton,  in  his  "Wanderings  in  South  Amei-ica,"  gives  some  interest 
ing  particulars  of  the  sloth.  He  says: — "One  day,  as  we  were  crossing  the 
Essequibo,  I  saw  a  large  two-toed  sloth  on  the  ground  upon  the  bank  ;  how  he  bad 
got  there,  nobody  could  tell.  The  Indian  said  he  had  never  surprised  a  sloth  in 
such  a  position  before  ;  he  would  hardly  have  come  there  to  drink,  for  both  above 
and  below  the  place,  the  branches  of  the  trees  touched  the  water,  and  afforded  him 
an  easy  and  safe  access  to  it.  Be  this  as  it  may,  though  the  trees  were  not  above 
twenty  yards  from  him,  he  could  not  make  his  way  through  the  sand  time  enough 
to  escape  before  we  landed.  As  soon  as  we  got  up  to  him,  he  threw  himself  upon 
his  back,  and  defended  himself  in  gallant  style  with  his  fore-legs.  '  Come,  poor 
fellow,'  said  I  to  him,  '  if  thou  hast  got  into  a  hobble  to-day,  thou  shalt  not  suffer 
for  it :  I'll  take  no  advantage  of  thee  in  misfortune  ;  the  forest  is  large  enough  both 
for  thee  and  me  to  rove  in  :  go  thy  ways  up  above,  and  enjoy  thyself  in  theae 
endless  wilds  ;  it  is  more  than  probable  thou  wilt  never  have  another  interview  with 
man.  So  fare-thee-well.' 

"  On  saying  this,  I  took  up  a  long  stick  which  was  lying  there,  held  it  for  him  to 
hook  on,  and  then  conveyed  him  to  a  high  and  stately  mora.  He  ascended  with 
wonderful  rapidity,  and  in  about  a  minute  was  almost  at  the  top  of  the  tree.  He 
now  went  off  in  a  side  direction,  and  caught  hold  of  the  branch  of  a  neighbouring 
tree  :  he  then  proceeded  towards  the  heart  of  the  forest.  I  stood  looking  on,  lost 
in  amazement  at  his  singular  mode  of  progress.  I  followed  him  with  my  eye  till 
the  intervening  branches  closed  in  betwixt  us,  and  then  I  lost  sight  for  ever  of  th« 
two-toed  sloth.  I  was  going  to  add,  that  I  never  saw  a  sloth  take  to  his  heels  in 
such  earnest ;  but  the  expression  will  not  do,  for  the  sloth  has  no  heels." 

Having  captured  another  of  these  animals,  he  had  a  good  opportunity  of  making 
some  observations  : — "  The  sloth  was  in  my  house  with  me  for  a  day  or  two.  Had 
I  taken  a  description  of  him  as  he  lay  sprawling  on  the  floor,  I  should  have  misled 
the  world,  and  injured  natural  history.  On  the  ground  he  appeai-ed  really  a 
bungled  composition,  and  faulty  at  all  points ;  awkwardness  and  misery  were 
depicted  on  his  countenance ;  and  when  I  made  him  advance  he  sighed  as  though 
in  pain.  Perhaps  it  was,  that  by  seeing  him  out  of  his  element,  as  it  were,  that  the 
Count  de  Buffon,  in  his  'History  of  the  Sloth,'  asks  the  question,—'  Why  should 
not  some  animals  be  created  for  misery,  since,  in  the  human  species,  the  greatest 
number  of  individuals  are  devoted  to  pain  from  the  moment  of  their  existence  ?' 
Were  the  question  put  to  me,  I  would  answer — I  cannot  conceive  that  any  of  them 
are  created  for  misery.  That  thousands  live  in  misery  there  can  be  no  doubt ;  but 
then  misery  has  overtaken  them  in  their  path  through  life,  and  wherever  man  has 
come  up  with  them,  I  should  suppose  they  have  seldom  escaped  from  experiencing 
a  certain  proportion  of  misery. 

"  After  fully  satisfying  myself  that  it  only  leads  the  world  into  error  to  describe  the 
sloth  while  he  is  on  the  ground,  or  in  any  place  except  in  a  tree,  I  carried  the  one  I 
had  in  my  possession  to  his  native  haunts.  As  sfv-n  as  he  came  in  contact  with  a 
branch  all  went  right  with  him.  I  could  see,  as  he  limbed  up  into  his  own  country 
that  he  was  on  the  right  road  to  happiness  ;  and  felt  persuaded  more  than  ever, 
that  the  world  has  hitherto  en-ed  iu  its  conjectures  concez-ning  the  slolli,  oa 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  137 


''It  is  remarkable  that  man,  who  is  endowed  with  reason,  is 
born  without  armature,  and  is  destitute  of  many  powers  which 
irrational  creatures  have  in  a  much  higher  degree  than  he." 

DERHAM. 

account  of  naturalists  not  having  given  a  description  of  him  when  he  was  in  the 
only  position  in  which  he  ought  to  have  been  described— namely,  clinging  to  th^ 
branch  of  a  tree."* 

416.   Why  is  the  armadillo  so  catted? 

The  name,  which  was  given  to  these  animals  by  the  Spaniards, 
means  "clad  in  armour,"  and  refeis  to  the  singular  covering  with 

which  nature  has  provided 
them.  It  consists  of  a  trian 
gular  or  oval  plate  on  the  top 
of  the  head,  a  large  buckler 
over  the  shoulders,  and  a 
similar  buckler  over  the 
haunches,  while  between  these  solid  portions  there  intervenes  a 
series  of  transverse  bands  or  shelly  zones,  which  accommodate  this 
coat  of  mail  to  the  various  postures  of  the  body ;  the  tail  also 
is  covered  by  a  series  of  calcareous  rings  ;  and  the  animal 
altogether  exhibits  a  striking  deviation  from  the  usual  structure 
and  outward  appearance  of  quadrupeds. 

417.  What  are  the  most  striking  indications  in  the  form,  of  the 
animal  of  adaptability  to  its  mode  of  life  ? 

The  stiffness  given  to  the  neck  and  to  the  whole  spinal  column 
by  the  ar.nour,  and  the  bearing  of  the  processes  of  the  vertebrae 
against  that,  evidently  enables  the  armadillo  to  push  forward  into 
the  earth,  so  as  to  keep  itself  advanced  to  the  full  action  of  the 
claws  in  burrowing  downwards  in  an  oblique  manner,  which  it  does 
with  very  great  rapidity,  so  fast,  indeed,  as  almost  to  elude  pur 
suit  ;  for  as  he  gets  the  body  buried,  it  takes  so  powerful  a  hold  of 
the  earth,  that  the  tail  may  be  pulled  away,  without  bringing  out 
the  animal. 

In  these  cases  it  is  probable  that  it  holds  on  with  the  whole 
body,  and  not  merely  with  the  feet.  While  digging,  the  legs  are 
not  stretched,  so  that  when  it  raises  itself  upon  these,  the  body 
is  brought  into  firm  contact  with  the  upper  part  of  the 

•Watcrton's  "Wanderings,"  page  283. 


THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  You  mii?ht  have  seen  them  throng  out  of  the  town, 
Like  ants  when  the}7  do  spoil  the  bing  of  come, 
For  winter's  dred,  which  they  beare  to  their  den."  —  SURREY. 


burrow  ;   and   the   armour   holds  like  a   screw   by  means   of  its 
transverse   prominences.* 

There  a,re  other  points  of  adaptability  worthy  of  observation. 
The  head  is  sharp  and  wedge-like,  the  eyes  are  small,  and,  in  some 
of  the  species,  covered  with  a  membrane  which  can  be  put  in  use 
while  the  animal  is  burrowing,  and  so  covered  and  protected. 

418.  How  are  the  armadillos,  being  unprovided  with  extensile 
tongues,  able  to  capture  ants,  upon  which  they  partly  subsist? 

As  the  structure  of  the  tongues  of  armadillo*  is  not  so  well 
calculated  for  the  capture  of  ants  as  those  of  the  true  ant-eaters, 
they  do  not  devour  these  insects  in  such  numbers  ;  but  they  are 
said  to  exterminate  them  more  speedily  and  completely  from. 
places  where  they  abound.  They  effect  this  by  mining  obliquely 
into  the  ant-hills  in  all  directions,  and  especially  by  digging 
down  to  those  places  where  the  chry  solids  of  the  young  ants 
are  collected. 

The  holes  which  they  make  are  also  too  deep  and  large  to  be 
easily  filled  up  by  the  ants  ;  and  as  they  admit  water  to  the  very 
lowest  inhabited  part  of  the  hill,  the  ants  are-  either  driven  out,  or 
drowned  the  first  rain  that  falls. 

419.  Why  has  the  number  of  armadillos  increased  in  the  vicinity 
of  colonies,  while  that  of  other  wild  animals  has  decreased  ? 

Because,  as  well  as  eating  insects  and  roots,  armadillos  devour 
the  carcases  of  animals.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  colonies 
a  great  many  wild  animals  are  killed  for  their  skins,  and  the 
increase  of  the  number  of  carcases  thus  promotes  the  increase  of 
the  number  of  armadillos,  who  act  as  scavengers  to  the  field* 
of  slaughter. 

*  Partint*ton's    "  Cyclopaedia." 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  139 


"  Then  as  nede  is,  they  weren  nothing  idel ; 
Gnawing,  and  fast  the  armnrers  also, 
Like  file  and  hammer,  pricking  to  and  fro." — CHAUCER. 


420.  Why  do  Indians  ascertain  the  presence  of  armadillos  in 
their  burrows  by  observing  the  movements  of  musquitoes  ? 

Because  musquitoes  enter  the  holes  of  armadillos  for  the  purpose 
of  sucking  their  blood.  When,  therefore,  the  Indians  see  that  a 
number  of  musquitoes  come  out  of  a  hole,  they  know  that  it 
is  inhabited. 

421.  As  it  often  takes  a  considerable  time  to  dig  an  armadillo  out  of  his  hole,  it 
'would  be  along  and  laborious  business  to  attack  each  hole  indiscriminately  without 
knowing  whether  the  animal  were  there  or  not.  To  prevent  disappointment  the 
Indians  carefully  examine  the  mouth  of  the  hole,  and  put  a  short  stick  down  it. 
Now,  if  on  introducing  the  stick  a  number  of  musquitoes  come  out,  the  Indians  know 
to  a  certainty  that  the  armadillo  is  there  ;  whenever  there  are  no  musquitoes  in  the 
hole,  there  is  no  armadillo.  The  Indian  having  satisfied  himself  that  the  armadillo 
is  there  by  the  musquitoes  which  come  out,  he  immediately  cuts  a  long  and  slender 
stick,  and  introduces  it  into  the  hole  ;  he  carefully  observes  the  line  the  stick  takes, 
and  then  sinks  a  pit  in  the  sand  to  catch  the  end  of  it ;  this  done,  he  puts  it  farther 
into  the  hole  and  digs  another  pit,  and  so  on,  till  at  last  he  comes  up  with  the 
armadillo,  which  has  been  making  itself  a  passage  in  the  sand  till  it  had  exhausted 
all  its  strength  through  pure  exertion.  I  have  been  sometimes  (says  Mr.  Westerton) 
three-quarters  of  a  day  in  digging  out  one  armadillo,  and  obliged  to  sink  half-a-dozen 
pits,  seven  feet  deep,  before  I  got  up  to  it.  The  Indians  and  negroes  are  very  fond 
of  the  flesh,  but  I  consider  it  strong  and  i-ank. 

422.  Wliy  has  the  American  cint-cxter  such  a  long  snout  and 
protrusive  tongue? 

Because,  like  the  armadillo,  it  devours  ants,  but  has  not  the 
power  of  burrowing  like  that  animal.  The  long  tongue,  which  is 
oovered  with  a  viscid  fluid,  therefore  enables  the  ant-eater  to 
capture  the  ants  before  they  have  time  to  run  into  the  ground,  after 
being  surprised. 

The  way  in  which  the  ant-eater  proceeds  is  to  approach  the 
ant-hill,  and  with  its  large  hooked  claws  to  destroy  a  portion  of  it. 
By  this  partial  spoliation  of  the  building  thousands  of  ants  are 
exposed,  as  they  run  to  and  fro  in  a  state  of  alarm.  Then  the 
long  tongue,  which  is  capable  of  being  thrown  out  some  eighteen 
inches,  goes  rapidly  to  work,  being  projected  about  twice  in  a 
second,  and  each  time  drawing  in  many  dozens  of  ants. 


140 


THE  REASON  WHY. 


On  every  side  are  seen,  descending1  down, 

Thick  swarms  of  souldiers  loaden  from  the  town  ; 

Thus,  in  Battalia,  inarch  embody'd  ants, 

Fearful  of  winter,  and  of  future' wants." — DKYDEN. 


423.  The  ant-eater  has  two  very  large  g  ands  situated  below  the  roof  of  the 
tongue.  From  this  is  emitted  the  glutinous  liquid  with  which  the  long  tongue  is 
lubricated  when  he  puts  it  into  the  ants'  nests.  These  glands  are  of  the  same 
nature  as  those  found  in  the  lower  jaw  of  the  wood-pecker.  The  secretion  when 
•wet  is  very  clammy  and  adhesive,  but  on  being  dried  it  loses  those  qualities,  and 
may  be  pulverised  between  the  finger  and  thumb. 

424.  Wh-y  are  ant-eaters  of  great  importance  in  the  economy 
of  nature? 

Because,  without  the  check  which  they  put  upon  the  multi 
plication  of  ants,  the  produce  of  the  soil,  even  in  the  most  fertile 

parts  of  the  world,  would 
inevitably  be  destroyed.  It 
seems  almost  incredible  that 
so  robust  and  powerful  an 
animal  as  the  ant-eater,  or 
ant-bear,  can  procure  suffi- 
1  ' '  '  cient  subsistence  from  ants 
alone  ;  but  this  circumstance 
has  nothing  strange  for  those 
who  are  acquainted  with  the 
tropical  parts  of  America, 
where  the  ant-hills  often 
almost  touch  one  another  for 
miles  together. 


^         -t   -     . 


42f>.  The  ant-hills  of  South  America  are  often  more  than  twenty  feet  in  diameter, 
and  many  feet  in  height.  These  wonderful  edifices  are  thronged  with  two-hundred 
fold  more  inhabitants,  and  are  proportionally  far  more  numerous  than  the  small 
ones,  with  which  we  are  better  acquainted.  Breeding  in  vast  numbers,  and 
multiplying  with  great  celerity  and  profusion,  the  increase  of  these  insects  would 
soon  enable  them  to  swarm  over  the  greatest  extent  of  country,  were  not  their 
propagation  and  diffusion  stinted  by  the  active  exertions  of  that  part  of  the  animal 
creation  which  continually  subsist  by  their  destruction. 

The  following  short  passage  from  Mr.  Darwin's  "  Observations  on  the  Natural 
History  of  Rio  de  Janeiro"  will  give  the  reader  a  good  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  ants' 
nests  there: — "Travelling  onward  we  passed  through  tracts  of  pasturage,  mucn 
injured  by  the  enormous  conical  ants'  nests,  which  were  nearly  twelve  feet  high. 
They  gave  to  tho  plain  exactly  the  appearance  of  the  mud  volcanoes  at  Jorullo,  a* 
figure  \  by  Humboldt." 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  141 


"  And  that  if  he  wol  sayn  it  is  not  thus, 
I  wol  it  prove,  and  finder  good  witnesse, 
That  soth  is  that  my  bitle  wol  expresse." — CHAUCER. 


Mr.  Waterton  also  remarks  • — "  In  the  far-extending  wilds  of  Guiana,  the  travelled 
will  be  astonished  at  the  immense  number  of  ants  which  he  perceives  on  the  ground 
as  well  as  in  the  trees.  They  have  nests  in  the  branches  four  or  five  times  as  large 
as  that  of  the  rook  ;  and  they  have  a  covered  way  from  them  to  the  ground.  In 
this  covered  way  thousands  are  continually  passing  and  repassing,  and  if  you 
destroy  part  of  it  they  immediately  repair  it.  Other  species  of  ants  have  no 
covered  way,  but  travel  exposed  to  view  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth.  You  will 
sometimes  see  a  string  of  these  ants  a  mile  long,  each  carrying  in  his  mouth  to  its 
nest  a  green  leaf  the  size  of  a  sixpence. 

426.  Why  is   the  ornythorynchus  so  called  ? 

From  two  Greek  words,  sig 
nifying  a  fowl  and  a  beak,  in 
allusion  to  the  peculiar  form  of 
its  muzzle,  which  resembles 
the  bill  of  a  duck  ;  it  is  called 
also  the  duck-billed  platypus, 
and  the  water  mole.  It  is 
also  web-footed,  its  feet  being 
equally  adapted  for  digging  or 
swimming. 

427.  Why  is  the  ornythorynchus  provided  with  this  duck-like 
appendage  ? 

Because,  although  a  quadruped,  the  animal  inhabits  the  water, 
living  in  burrows  on  its  borders,  and  being  insectivorous,  finds 
its  food,  as  the  duck  in  part  does,  by  exploring  the  plants 
and  herbs  along  the  margins  of  fresh-water  rivers  and  lakes. 
The  broad  beak  acts  as  a  kind  of  shovel.  It  is  peculiar  to 
Australia  and  Van  Dieman's  Land,  and  has  been  regarded 
by  naturalists  as  a  link  between  the  aquatic  birds  and  the 
mammalia. 

428.  So  peculiar  is  the  formuMon  of  its  muzzle,  that  when  a  specimen  was  first 
sent  to  this  country  a  general  suspicion  was  excited  that  a  hoax   was  designed 
Dr.  Shaw  expressed  the  opinio-*  that  of  all  the  mammalia,  the  ornythorynchus  was 
the  most  extraordinary  in  '**  /onformation  ;  exhibiting  a  perfect  resemblance  to 
the  beak  of  a  duck,  engraf^d  upon  the  head  of  a  quadruped. 


142  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  As  for  such  as  are  whole-footed,  or  whose  toes  are  ivebbed 
together  (excepting  some  few)  their  legs  are  generally  short, 
which  is  the  most  convenient  size  for  swimming." — DERHAM. 


The  ornythorynclius  is  ahout  twenty  inches  long,  having  a  long  and  flattened 
body,  like  that  of  the  otter,  covered  with  a  thick  soft  fur,  moderately  dark  brown 
above,  and  whitish  beneath.  The  beak,  like  the  bill  of  the  duck,  is  furnished  with 
transverse  plates.  The  teeth  are  situated  in  the  back  of  the  mouth,  two  on  each 
side,  with  flat  tops  and  no  roots.  The  feet  are  furnished  with  a  membrane  uniting 
the  toes,  and  in  the  anterior  feet  extending  beyond  the  nails.  The  tail  is  flat  and 
obtuse.  From  the  form  of  this  animal  it  is  fitted  to  reside  in  the  water  ;  and  it 
must,  feed  on  soft  food,  as  the  structure  of  the  beak  will  not  enable  it  to  grasp 
anything  firmly.  The  central  portion  of  the  mandibles  is  a  bony  continuation  from 
the  skull,  and  anterially  and  laterally,  a  cartilaginous  substance,  p.-r:  ctly 
movcable,  extends  some  little  distance  from  the  bony  portion.  Feet,  nve-t>xd  and 
webbed.  In  the  fore  feet  the  web  extends  a  short  distance  beyond  the  claws,  is 
loose,  and  falls  back  when  the  animal  burrows ;  claws  strong,  blunt,  the  two 
lateral  shorter  than  the  three  middle  ones.  Hind  feet  short,  narrow,  turned 
backwards,  and,  when  the  animal  is  at  rest,  somewhat  resembling  a  fin.  The  male 
ornitliorynchus  is  armed  with  a  spur  on  each  hind  leg,  having  a  canal  in  it  similar 
to  that  in  the  poison  fang  of  venomous  serpents,  and,  like  this,  also  furnished  with 
a  gland  at  the  base,  secreting  a  fluid ;  hence  it  has  been  thought  likely,  though 
there  is  no  evidence  of  the  fact,  that  wounds  produced  by  them  would  b* 
dangerous.  They  have  no  external  ear,  and  their  eyes  are  very  small,  but  brilliant. 
The  motions  of  the  mandibles  in  this  animal,  when  seeking  its  food  in  the  mud  and 
water,  are  the  same  as  those  of  a  duck  when  feeding  in  similar  situations. 

The  young  are  produced  in  a  very  imperfect  state,  and  ai-e  very  unlike  the  full- 
grown  animal.  The  skin  is  entirely  destitute  of  fur ;  the  eyes  are  not  formed, 
and  their  place  is  merely  indicated  by  the  presence  of  a  few  wrinkles  on  the  skin. 
The  margin  of  the  bill  is  at  that  time  soft  and  the  tongue  advances  to  its  front 
edge,  so  that  the  young  animal  can  obtain  nourishment  by  sucking,  which  was  at 
first  thought  impossible.  The  mammary  gland  is  very  simple  in  structure,  and  is 
divided  into  a  large  number  of  separate  lobes.  The  ornithorynchus,  when  asleep, 
rolls  itself  up  like  a  hedgehog,  keeping  its  back  warm  by  bringing  over  it  the 
flattened  tail.  It  dresses  its  fur,  combing  it  with  its  feet,  and  pecking  at  it  with  its 
beak,  and  seems  to  take  great  delight  in  keeping  it  smooth  and  clean.* 


ORDER  VII.  —  PACHYDERMATA. 

429.   Why  is  the  seventh  order  of  mammalia  called  Pachyder- 


Because  they  are  characterised  by  thick  skins  or  hides.    The 
term  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  and  means  thick-skinned. 

*  Maunder's  "  Treasury  of  Natural  History." 
t  Tack-e-dcr-ma'-ta. 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


"  Where  the  elephant  browses  at  peace  in  his  wood, 
And  the  river-horse  gambols  unscathed  in  the  flood, 
And  the  mighty  rhinoceros  wallows  at  will, 
In  the  pool  where  the  wild  ass  is  drinking  his  fill."— PRINOI.E. 

430.  A  very  imperfect  notion  of  the  appearance  and  texture  of  the  skin  of  the 
leading  species  of  the  pachydcnnatn,  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  &c.,  is  obtained 
from  examining  the  specimens  which  are  confined  in  menageries,  even  in  places 
where  they  are  treated  with  the  greatest  kindness  and  care.  The  skin  of  the 
elephant  in  confinement  is  invariably  callous,  and  often  apparently  chapped  or 
cracked  into  pieces,  which  have  little  or  no  sensibility.  But  when  the  animal  is  in 
good  health,  and  in  its  proper  climate,  the  skin  is  smooth  and  soft,  and  is  probably 
almost  as  sensitive  to  the  bite,  even  of  a  small  insect,  as  the  thinnest  skin  that  can 
be  imagined.  When  the  animal  is  in  this  condition,  there  is,  indeed,  a  wonderful 
power  in  the  muscles  of  the  skin,  so  that  by  agitation  of  these  alone  an  elephant  is 
capable  of  shaking  off  a  wild  beast  which  may  have  sprung  upon  it. 

The  hide  of  the  rhinoceros  is  probably  thicker  than  that  of  any  other  pachyder 
matous  animal.  Yet  the  creature  is  remarkably  sensitive  of  the  condition  of  its 
Bkin,  which,  though  not  possessed  of  a  high  degree  of  feeling,  exerts  a  considerable 
influence  over  the  comfort  of  the  animal.  Hence  the  rhinoceru*  and  other  thick- 
skinned  quadrupeds  inhabiting  hot  climates,  will  remain  for  hours  in  the  water, 
laving  their  skins,  for  which  purpose  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  provide  baths  for 
these  animals  when  they  are  kept  in  confinement. 


431.  The  pacJiydermata  are  subdivided  into — 

1.  Proboscidco,,  o*  those  possessing  a  prolonged  snout  or  proboscis 


144  THE   REASON   WHY: 


"  The  unwieldly  elephant 

To  make  them  mirth  used  all  his  might,  and  wreathed 
His  lithe  proboscis." — MILTON.  •  • 


and  having  five  toes  on  each  foot,  included  in  a  very  firm  homy 
skin,  as  certain  extinct  gigantic  species,  and  the  elephant,  &c. 

2.  The  Pachydermata  ordinaria,   in  which  the  feet  have  two, 
three,  or  four  toes  on  each  foot. 

3.  The  Solidungula,  or  quadrupeds  with  only  one  apparent  toe, 
and  a  single  hoof  to  each  foot,  although  beneath  the  skin  there  are 
bony  points  which  represent  two  lateral  toes. 

By  many  naturalists,  however,  the  solidungula  are  regarded  as  a 
distinct  order. 

432.  JPhy  is  the  elephant  furnished  with  a  proboscis  ? 

Because  the  enormous  head  of  the  animal  is  so  heavy  that  were 
it  placed  at  the  end  of  a  neck  of  a  length  proportionate  to  the 
dimensions  of  that  organ  in  other  animals,  an  almost  incalculable 
amount  of  muscular  force  would  be  necessary  to  elevate  and 
sustain  it.  The  shortness,  and  almost  total  absence  of  a  neck, 
obviates  the  difficulty  j  the  provision  of  a  trunk  compensates  the 
absence  of  a  neck. 

433.  Animals  in  general  which  feed  on  herbage  or  other  productions  situated 
near  the  ground,  require  that  the  head  should  be  attached  to  a  neck  the  length  of 
which  is  proportionate  to  that  of  its  fore  legs,  so  that  on  lowering  the  head  it  can 
apply  its  mouth  to  the  ground  without  bending  its  legs.    These  conditions  are 
obviously  incompatible  with  a  large  and  ponderous  head  like  that  of  the  elephant, 
and    we  accordingly  find   animals,   such   as    the    giraffe,    having    fore    legs    of 
considerable  length,   and    consequently   a   neck   in    proportion,    furnished   with 
small  light  heads. 

434.  Why  is  the  elephant's  trunk  capable  of  a  great  variety 
of  motions  ? 

Because  it  is  made  up  of  a  great  number  of  muscles  with  their 
tendons.  Those  nr  -scles  have  their  insertions  in  the  internal  and 
external  coverings  of  the  trunk  ;  and  they  lie  in  a  great  variety  of 
directions,  some  longitudinal,  some  nearly  circular,  and  othera 
oblique. 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


Lo !  from  his  trunk  upturn'd  aloft  he  flings 

The  grateful  shower ;  and  now 

He  plucks  the  broad-leafed  bough." — SOUTHKY. 


There  are  in  this  trunk  no  less  than  four  thousand  muscles,  which 
is  considerably  greater  than  the  number  in  the  whole 
human  body.  It  is  divided  through  its  length  by  f> 
septum,  forming  a  sort  of  double  tube,  terminating  in  a 
kind  of  finger-like  appendage,  or  moveable  hook. 

435.  The  trunk  of  the  elephant  may  justly  be  considered  as  one  of 
the  miracles  of  nature,  being  at  once  the  organ  of  respiration  as  well 
as  the  instrument  by  which  the  animal  supplies  itself  with  food. 
Nearly  eight  feet  in  length,  endowed  with  exquisite  sensibility,  and 
stout  in  proportion  to  the  massive  size  of  the  animal,  this  organ  will 
uproot  trees  or  gather  grass—  raise  a  piece  of  artillery  or  take  up  a 
nut,  kill  a  man  or  brush  off  a  fly.  It  conveys  the  food  to  the  mouth, 
and  pumps  up  enormous  draughts  of  water,  which  by  its  recurvature 
are  turned  into  and  driven  down  the  capacious  throat,  or  showered  over  the 

body.  Its  length  supplies  the 
place  of  a  long  neck,  which 
would  have  been  incompatible 
with  the  support  of  the  large 
head  and  weighty  tusks.  A  glance 
at  the  head  of  an  elephant  will 
show  the  thickness  and  strength 
of  the  trunk  at  its  insertion  ;  and 
the  massy  arched  bones  of  the 
face,  and  thick  muscular  neck, 
are  admirably  adapted  for 
supporting  and  working  this 
powerful  and  wonderful  instru 
ment.* 


436.   Why  is  the  ekphant  provided  with  tusks? 

They  are  weapons  of  defence,  combining  enormous  powers  upon  a 
fixed  and  irresistible  base,  in  connection  with  a  flexible  trunk,  by 
which  the  moveable  tusks  are  brought  into  effective  operation. 

That  they  are  weapons  of  defence  is  obvious  from  the  fact  that 
they  are  larger  in  the  males  than  in  the  females,  which  is  generally 
the  case  with  the  horns  of  ruminants,  some  of  the  males  only  of 
the  latter  order  having  these  appendages. 


Maunder's 


'Treasury  of  Natural  History. 

7 


146  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  With  turcoises  divinely  bine, 

(Though  doubts  arise  -where  first  they  grew, 

Whether  chaste  elephantine  bone 

By  min'rals  tinged,  or  native  stone.)" — Jowns. 

~*f^^~s*^~^s*s*~s*s^^^s*^^~*^~~^^~^*s*~^>~'~*~^s*~^^ 

437.  It  Is  remarkable  that  while  a  great  number  of  writers  have  fully  discussed 
the  uses  and  curious  anatomy  of  the  elephant's  trunk,  they  have  been  almost  siient 
as  to  the  wse»  of  the  tusks.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  these  prominent  and 
ponderous  weapons  must  be  of  material  consequence  in  t&e  economy  of  the  aniraal'9 
existence.  In  Partington's  "  Cyclopaedia  "  we  find  the  following  speculations  np  >B 
Hie  subject; — 

In  the  living  elephants  of  both  varieties  the  tusks  are  either  nearly  straigat 
9t  curved  upwards  ;  or  if  their  direction  be  nearly  that  of  the  line  of  the  face  they 
are  inclined  forward  at  the  points-.  In  the  fossil  elephant,  on  the  other  hand,  (at 
least  in  all  the  specimens  which  have  been  found,)  the  curvature  of  the  tusks  is  the 
"the  other  way,  or  downwards.  What  may  be  the  use  of  this  difference  of  structure 
it  is  not  easy  to  say,  because  we  know  nothing  of  the  habits  of  the  extinct  elephant, 
and  very  little  of  what  the  state  of  the  country  may  have  been  when  it  was  alive  ; 
but  as  tfze  tusks  in  it  are  so  constructed  as  that  they  might  act  as  hooks  in  pulling 
down  substances  higher  than  itself,  and  as  it  is  probable  that  the  northern  marshes 
were  at  that  time  covered  with  tree  ferns,  and  those  other  palm-like  plants,  of 
which  the  remains  are  abundant  in  the  fossil  state,  though  not  a  vestige  of  those 
plants  now  appears  on  the  surface  of  the  same  regions,  we  may  perhaps  venture  to 
conclude  that  such  tusks  had  been  employed  in  pulling* down  the  fronds  of  the 
plants  in  order  that  the  animal  might  feed  upon  them.* 

The  elephant  rarely  uses  b»  trunk  as  a  weapon,  but  his  tusks-  enable  him  not 
enly  to  clear  his  way  through  the  thick  forests  m  which  he  lives,  by  rooting  up 
small  trees  and  tearing  down  cross  branches,  in  doing  which  service  they  effectually 
protect  his  face  and  proboscis  from  injury  ;  but  they  qualify  him  for  warding  ofi 
the  attacks  of  the  wily  tiger  and  the  furious  rhinoceros,  often  securing  him  the 
victory  by  one  blow,  wMch  transfixes  the  assailant  to  the  earth. 

438.  Why  are  the  eyes  of  the  elephant  remarkably  small? 

By  their  smallness  they  are  more  easily  protected  fron;  >njury 
while  the  animal  is  engaged  in  breaking  down  branches  >f  trees. 
And  they  are  also  rendered  more  secure  from  the  attacks  of 
insects  which,  in  the  geographical  range  of  the  elephant,  are 
exceedingly  troublesome. 

The  eye  is  uot  only  protected  by  the  comparative  smallnesa 
of  its  size,  bat  it  is  provided  with  a  nictating  membrane,  by 
which  the  elephant  is  enabled  to  free  it  from  all  accidental 
fragments  that  may  fall  upon  it.  This  membrane,  which  is 
limilar  to  that  possessed  by  birds,  is  not  the  ordinary  eye-iiti, 

•  Partingtou's  "Cyclopaedia." 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  147 

"  Trampling  his  patr   through  wood  and  brake, 
And  canes  which  crackling  fall  hcfore  his  way, 
O'ertopping  the  young  trees, 
On  comes  the  elephant." — SOUTHKY. 

but  a    third   provision,  which   is  specially  adapted  for  cleansing 
the  eye,  but  not  for  closing  it. 

439.   Why  are  the  cars  of  the  elephant  unusually  large? 

The  office  of  the  external  ear  in  all  animals  is  to  facilitate 
the  transmission  of  sounds — to  catch  the  impulses  of  the  air,  and 
by  condensing  and  transmitting  them  to  a  <given  point,  to  impart 
intensity  to  the  impression. 

An  animal  which  habitually  browses  upon  trees  must  be  liable 
to  have  its  hearing  frequently  interrupted  by  the  crackling  of 
branches  and  leaves.  It  seems  highly  probable  that  the  size  of  the 
external  ear  favours  the  reception  of  distant  sounds  ;  in  other 
words,  lengthens  the  focus  of  the  ear.  If  this  conjecture  be 
correct,  the  ear  is  adapted  to  receive  sounds  from  a  distance 
with  less  interruption  from  noises  that  are  near  at  hand,  than 
would  be  the  case  if  the  ear  were  smaller. 


440.  The  structure  of  the  elephant's  ear  has  been  investigated  with  great 
accuracy  by  Sir  Everard  Home.  ("  Comparative  Anatomy,"  vol.  III.,  Lecture  ix.) 
The  drum  and  every  other  part  of  the  organ,  are  much  larger  in  proportion  than  in 
other  quadrupeds,  or  in  man ;  and  there  is  a  remarkable  difference  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  drum  of  the  elephant's  ear  when 
compared  with  man  and  some  other  quadrupeds.  In  the  human  ear  these  fibres 
are  radii  of  a  circle,  and  in  the  horse,  the  hare,  and  the  cat,  they  are  of  an  uniform 
length.  But  in  the  elephant's  ear  these  fibres  are  so  placed  that  some  are  more 
than  double  the  length  of  others.  Sir  E.  Home  argues  from  this  remarkable 
construction  that  the  elephant  has  not  a  musical  ear ;  but  that  it  has  a  peculiar 
compensating  power  in  this  form  of  fibre,  as  its  slower  vibrations  enable  it  to  hear 
sounds  at  a  greater  distance  ;  and  this  opinion  is  still  further  sustained  by  the 
structure  of  the  different  parts  of  the  internal  organs,  more  particularly  the  cells 
between  the  tables  of  the  skull.  Sir  E.  Home  illustrates  his  position  that  the 
elephant  hears  farther  than  other  animals,  and  particularly  that  his  hearing  is  me  re 
acute  than  that  of  man,  by  several  interesting  narratives. 

We  may  also  perceive  the  utility  of  the  large  flap  of  the  ear  as  regards  the 
svTimetry  and  appearance  of  the  animal.  The  huge  form  of  the  elephant  is  broken 
"by  less  lines  of  beauty  than  may  be  observed  in  most  other  quadrupeds,  and  the 
large  ear,  which  falls  gracefully  over  the  shoulders,  at  once  presents  a  point  of 
relief,  and  gives  character  and  dignity  to  the  whole. 


l48  THE   REASON   WHY  I 


"  The  elephant  hath  joints ;  but  none  for  courtesy ;  his 
are  for  necessity,  not  flexure." — SHAKSPERE. 


441.  Why  does  the,  elephant  seize,  a  man  with  his  trunk,  yet 
never  use  it  when  he  attacks  a  tiger? 

The  elephant  is  gifted  with  a  high  order  of  instinct,  which 
prompts  him  to  entertain  great  concern  for  the  preservation  of  his 
trunk,  the  most  essential  of  his  external  members.  The  animal 
knows  that  the  terrible  claws  of  the  tiger  might  at  one  stroke 
lacerate  and  destroy %that  essential  organ;  but  he  does  not  fear 
to  attack  man  with  it. 

442.  When  the  elephant  is  provoked  to  take  vengeance  on  man,  he  does  not 
scruple  to  sei/.e  him  with  his  trunk,  but  never  employs  that  member  to  grapple 
with  a  tiger,  nor  to  hurl  him  in  the  air  with  it.  He  scents  the  tiger's  lair  at  a 
distance,  and  instantly  elevates  his  trunk  on  high,  so  that  it  may  be  as  far  as 
possible  removed  from  the  reach  or  spring  of  his  stealthy  adversary.  So  much 
does  he  dread  the  spring  of  the  wild  beast's  attack  upon  this  important  organ,  that 
he  will  throw  it  out  of  reach  even  when  a  dead  tiger  is  brought  into  his  presence. 
The  following  paragraph  in  an  account  of  an  elephant  accidentally  burnt  at 
Dublin  serves  to  illustrate  the  elephant's  care  for  his  trunk  still  more  strongly  : — 
"  Doubtless  the  elephant's  care  to  preserve  his  trunk  was  great,  for  when  we 
dissected  him  we  found  it  thrust  nearly  two  feet  into  the  very  ground,  upon  which 
account  we  thought  it  had  been  burned,  till  the  head  was  divided  from  the  body, 
and  then  we  found  it  was  kept  fast  to  the  ground  by  the  trunk,  which  had  actually 
been  buried  therein. 

443.  Why  has  the  elephant  the  unusual  power  of  bending  the 
hind  leg  fomoard  at  the  knee  joint  ? 

By  this  arrangement,  which  brings  all  the  muscular  force  of  the 
leg  to  act  immediately  underneath  the 
body,  the  animal  is  enabled  to  raise 
its  enormous  bulk  much  more  quickly 
and  certainly  than  it  could  possibly 
do  if  its  hind  legs  bent  outwards,  as 
is  the  case  with  other  animals. 

The  elephant  is  very  fond  of  rolling 
its  unweildy  form  in  the  ooze  and 
mud  of  groves  and  jungles  ;  and  in 
this  enjoyment  it  is  assisted  by 
the  facility  by  which  it  gets  up  or  lies  down. 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  149 

"  On  high-rais'd  decks  the  haughty  Belgians  ride, 
Beneath  whose  shade  our  humble  frigates  go ; 
Such  port  the  elephant  bears,  and  so  defy'd 
By  the  rhinoceros  her  unequal  foe." — DRYDKX. 

44  \.  A  ;a:na  elephant  is  really  the  most  docile,  gentle,  and  obedient  of  all 
aniiu-.ls.  He  forms  an  attachment  to  his  keeper;  comprehends  signs;  learns  to 
distinguish  the  various  tones  of  the  human  voice,  as  expressive  of  anger, 
approbation,  or  command ;  is  generous,  grateful,  and  humane.  Many  ludicrous 
stories,  compounded  of  truth  and  fable,  have  been  related  of  the  elephant.  But 
there  are  sufficiently  well-attested  proofs  of  Ms  sagacity  without  resorting  to 
the  marvellous. 

The  following  anecdotes  and  facts  will  be  found  interesting: — 

AN   ELEPHANT    PROTECTS   THE   SICK    AND    DYING. 

445.  In  the  Laknaor,  the  capital  of  Soubah,  during  the  rage  of  an  epidemic 
distemper,  the  principal  road  to  the  palace  gate  was  covered  with  sick  and  dying 
people,  extended  on  the  ground  and  incapable  of  moving,  though  at  a  time  when 
the  Nabob  was  to  pass  on  his  elephant.  The  indifference  of  the  prince  about  the 
lives  of  his  perishing  subjects,  the  haste  with  which  he  sought  to  pass,  and  the 
towering  motions  and  heavy  steps  of  the  elephant,  seemed  to  threaten  inevitable 
death  to  those  unhappy  wretches  who  chanced  to  be  in  his  way.  But  the  generous 
quadruped,  without  receiving  any  command  to  the  purpose,  and  even  without 
slackening  his  pace,  dexterously  assisted  the  poor  creatures  with  his  trunk, 
removing  some,  raising  othei's,  and  stepping  over  the  rest ;  so  that  none  suffered 
the  slightest  injury. 


AN   ELEPHANT   GOES   REGULARLY  TO   A   HOSPITAL   TO   HAVE   HIS 
WOUNDS   DRESSED. 

446.  An   elephant,  who,   in   the   course   of  the  war  between   the   French  and 
English  in  the  East  Indies,  in  1759,  had  received  a  wound  by  a  cannon  ball :  after 
being  once  or  twice  conducted  to  the  hospital  to  have  his  wound  dressed,  constantly 
attended  of  himself  at  the  proper  time,  till  it  was  healed.     That  the  surgeon  might 
operate,  he  readily  extended  himself  on  the  ground.    He  bore  with  patience  the 
application  even  of  burning  caustic  to  his  wound.      The  acuteness  of  the  pain 
would  sometimes  force  from  him  a  plaintive  groan ;  but  to  the  person  who,  by 
inflicting  momentary  torments,  sought  to  accomplish  his  cure,  he  expressed  none 
but  emotions  of  gratitude. 

AFFECTION    OF   THE   ELEPHANT   FOR    ITS    SPECIES. 

447.  A  shot  from  one  of  the  hunters  had  broken  a  male  elephant's  left  fore  leg, 
which  completely  disabled  him  from  running.    On  this  occasion,  there  occurred 
a  touching  instance  of  affection  and  sagacity  in  the  elephant,  which  well  illustrates 
tbo  character  of  this  noble  animal.     Seeing  the  danger  and  distress  of  her  mate, 
the  female,  rcgai-dless  of  her  own  peril,  quitted  her  shelter  in  the  bush,  rushed 
out  to  his  assistance,  walked  round  and  round  him,  chasing  away  the  assailants, 
and  etill  returr.  _ig  to  his  side  and  caressing  him ;  and  when  he  attempted  to  walk 


150  THE    REASON    WliY 


Beneath  his  over-shadowing  orb  of  hat, 

And  ample  fer.ce  of  elephantine  nose."— F.  PHILLIPS. 


she  placed  her  flank  under  his  wounded  side  and  supported  him.  This  scene 
continued  nearly  half-an-hour,  until  the  female  received  a  severe  wound,  which 
drove  her  again  to  the  bush,  where  she  speedily  sank  exhausted  from  the  loi^s  of 
blood;  and  the  male  soon  after  received  a  mortal  wound. 


AN  ELEPHANT'S  REVENGE. 

448.  Carel  Krieger,  a  celebrated  elephant  hunter,  met  with  his  death  in  the 
following  manner  ;— He  had  been  an  indefatigable  and  fearless  hunter  ;  and,  being 
also  an  excellent  marksman,  often  ventured  into  the  most  dangerous  situations. 
One  day,  having  with  his  party  pursued  an  elephant  which  he  had  wounded,  the 
irritated  animal  suddenly  turned  round,  and  singling  out  from  the  rest  the  person 
by  whom  he  had  been  wounded,  seized  him  with  his  trunk,  and  lifting  his  wretched 
victim  high  in  the  air,  dashed  him  with  fearful  force  to  the  ground.  His 
companions,  struck  with  horror,  lied  precipitately  from  the  fatal  scene,  unable 
to  turn  their  eyes  to  behold  the  rest  of  the  tragedy.  But  on  the  following  day  they 
repaired  to  the  spot,  where  they  collected  the  few  bones  that  could  be  found,  and 
buried  them  near  the  spring.  The  enraged  animal  had  not  only  trampled  his  body 
literally  to  pieces,  but  could  not  feel  its  vengeance  satisfied  till  it  had  pounded  the 
very  flesh  into  the  dust,  so  that  nothing  of  this  unfortunate  man  remained 
excepting  a  few  of  the  larger  bones. 


SAGACITY   OF  THE   ELEPHANT. 

449.  When  an  elephant  is  employed  upon  the  banks  of  a  muddy  river,  he 
frequently  begins  to  sink  from  his  excessive  weight.  He  will  then  endeavour  to 
throw  himself  upon  his  side  to  prevent  his  sinking  deeper.  The  manner  in  which 
he  seconds  the  efforts  which  are  made  to  extricate  him,  when  situated  as  above 
stated,  is  very  remarkable.  Liberal  supplies  of  straw,  boughs,  and  grass  are 
thrown  to  the  distressed  animal ;  and  these  he  forces  down  with  his  trunk  till  they 
are  lodged  under  his  fore  feet  in  sufficient  quantity  to  resist  his  pressure.  Having 
thus  formed  a  sufficient  basis  for  exertion,  the  sagacious  animal  next  proceeds  to 
thrust  other  bundles  under  his  belly,  and  as  far  back  under  his  flanks  as  he  can 
reach ;  when  such  a  basis  is  formed  as  may  be,  in  his  mind,  proper  to  proceed 
upon,  he  throws  his  whole  weight  forward,  and  gets  his  hind  feet  gradually  upon 
the  straw,  &c.  Being  once  confirmed  on  a  solid  footing,  he  will  next  place  the 
surrounding  bundles  before  him,  pressing  them  well  with  his  trunk  so  as  to  form  a 
causeway  by  which  to  reach  the  firm  ground.  The  instinct  of  the  animal,  and 
probably  the  experience  of  his  past  danger,  actuates  him  not  to  bear  any  weignt 
definitely,  until,  by  trial  with  his  trunk  and  the  next  foot  that  is  to  be  planted,  he 
has  completely  satisfied  himself  of  the  firmness  of  the  ground  he  has  to  tread 
upon.  When  he  succeeds  in  reaching  dry  ground,  he  evinces  his  pleasure  in 
unrnistakeable  signs. 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


161 


"  On  every  side 

They  trembling  stood,  and  made  a  long  broad  dyke, 
That  his  swift  cJiavct  might  have  pat-sage  wide, 
Wkieh  foure  great  hippcdaiiies  did  draw  in  teem-wise  tide." — SFEXSER. 

450.   Why  is  the  hippopotamus  so  colled  f 

From  two  Greek  words,  meaning  horse,  and  river,  and  having 
reference  to  the  habits  of  the  animaL 


451.  Why  &re  the  water* 
seen  to  bubble  wh-en  the 
kippopo&tmMt  -dives  beneatk 
them  ? 

Because  the  animal  has 
the  power  of  expelling  the 
air  contained  in  its  lungs, 
for  the  purpose  of  facilitating 
its  descent,  and  increasing 
its  specific  gravity,  so  that 
it  may  more  readily  walk  at 
die  bottom, 

452.  The  hippopotamus  sbeps  ia 
the  small  ree-dy  islets  which  are 
found  in  the  rivers  it  frequents.  In 
these  spots  it  also  produces  its 
young,  having  only  one  at  a  birth, 
which,  it  nurses  with  great  care. 


453. 


JKHS  the  hippopotamus  such  enormously  large  teeth? 


Because  the  coarse  vegetable  matter  which  it  eats  is  enormous 
in  quantity—  much  greater  than  is  consumed  by  any  other  animal 
Its  mouth  is  adapted  for  tearing  and  dividing  hard  and  tough 
plants.  The  stomach  of  the  hippopotamus  is  capable  of  containing 
five  or  six  bushels,  and  the  large  intestine  is  at  least  eight  inches 
in  diameter. 

These  enormous  teeth  are  also  used  as  weapons  of  defence. 
Dampier  related  that  he  had  known  the  hippopotamus  to  set  one 


152  THE   REASON  WHY: 


"  Only  these  marishes  and  myrie  bogs, 

In  which  the  fearful  cwftes  do  build  their  bowres, 
Yield  me  an  hostry,  'mongst  the  croaking  frogs, 

And  harbour  here  in  safety  from  these  rav'nous  dogs." — SPKNCEE. 

tooth  in  the  gunwale  of  a  boat,  and  another  at,  the  distance  of  more 
than  four  feet,  and  thus  bite  a  hole  through  the  plank,  and  sink 
the  boat. 

454.  Neither  the  elephant  nor  the  rhinoceros,  coarse  as  their  subsistence  may  be, 
could  live  on  the  same  kind  of  food  as  the  hippopotamus.  Its  life  is  the  rudest, 
and  i<-«  food  the  coarsest  of  all  the  mammalia.  Its  office  is,  to  clear  the  riven  oj 
all  ,/iose  vegetable  remains  which,  if  allowed  to  accumulate  in  countries  where 
vegetation  is  rapid,  ivott/d  choke  w/j  all  the  passages,  and  turn  all  the  flat  lands 
into  at  teast  periodical  marshes.* 

VA>.  The  hippopotamus  is  understood  to  be  tbe  behemoth  of  Scripture  r — 

"  Behold  now  behemoth  which  I  made  with  thee  ;.  he  eateth  grass  as  an  ox. 

"  His  bones  are  as  strong  pieces  of  brass  ;  his  bones  are  like  bars  of  iron. 

"  He  lieth  under  the  shady  trees,  in  the  covert  of  the  reeds  and  fens. 

"The  shady  trees  cover  him  with  their  shadow;  the  willows  of  the  brook 
compass  him  about. 

"  Behold  he  drinketh  up  a  river,  and  hasteth  not :  he  trusteth  that  he  can  draw 
up  Jordan  into  his  mouth. 

"  He  taketh  in  with  his  eyes :  his  nose  pierceth  through  snares."— Job  xl.  15,  &c. 

456.  WJiy    does    the    hippopotamus    walk    awkwardly    upon 
the  land? 

Because  the  shortness  of  its  legs,  which  are  well  adapted  for 
walking  underneath  the  water,  presents  an  impediment  to  its  free 
movements  upon  the  land.  But  it  is  also  asserted  that  the  body 
of  the  hippopotamus  is  specifically  heavier  than  that  of  any  other 
animal.  This,  while  it  promotes  the  movements  of  the  animal  in 
the  water,  gives  an  awkward  and  cumbrous  appearance  to  its 
motions  on  the  land. 

The  usual  motion  of  the  hippopotamus  in  the  water  is  walking 
tipon  the  bottom,  although  it  is  capable  of  swimming,  when  it 
desires  to  change  its  quarters,  or  to  rise  to  the  surface. 

457.  Why  has  the  hippopotamus  been  called  the  river  "horse" 
although  possessing  a  very  un-horselike  body  ? 

The  name  is  of  very  ancient  origin,  and  was  probably  applied 

*  Partington's  "  Cyclopaedia." 


NATURAL   HiSTORf.  163 


Man  hath  hi*  daily  work  of  body  or  mind, 

And  the  rc.^rd  of" heaven  on  all  his  ways; 

While  other  animals  inactive  range, 

And  of  their  rf.oinss  God  takes  no  account." — MILTO.W. 

before  the  form  of  the  animal  was  well-known.  Being  generally 
seen  in  the  water,  with  its  ears,  eyes,  and  nostrils  only  emerging 
therefrom,  it  is  found  thaf  the  partial  profile  thus  afforded, 
presents  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  head  of  a  horse ;  and 
hence  the  popular  idea. 

458.  How  are  the  eyes  and  nostrils  of  the  hippopotamus 
adapted  in  their  structure  and  position  to  the  habits  of  the 
animal  ? 

It  is  necessary  that  the  muscles  of  the  eye  should  be  powerful, 
endowed  with  great  versatility,  and  capable  of  protruding  or 
withdrawing  the  eyeball,  which  can  be  either  projected  remarkably, 
or  sunk  within  the  orbit  considerably,  so  as  to  adapt  it  -  for  vision 
in  the  different  media  where  it  is  to  act,  whether  the  animal  be  on 
land,  just  under  water,  or  far  down  beneath  its  surface.  The 
nostrils,  which  are  so  placed  that  they  just  appear  above  the 
surface  of  the  water,  when  the  animal  rises  from  below,  can  be 
closed  when  the  animal  descends  into  the  deep,  and  opened  when  it 
comes  up  to  take  in  a  supply  of  air. 

459.  These  two  portions  of  the  animal  machinery  of  the  hippopotamus  are  of  the 
greatest  consequence  to  the  well-being  and  safety  of  a  creature  that  spends  so 
much  of  its  time  in  the  water.  The  beautifully  contrived  eye  has  the  power  o. 
rolling  round  when  it  is  ir  a  state  of  protrusion,  and  is  admirably  adapted  for  the 
requirements  of  the  animal.  If  danger  threatens,  the  hippopotamus  instinctively 
rushes  to  the  river ;  and  while  there  hidden  can  manage  to  just  lift  its  head  among 
the  water  plants  and  take  his  observation.  If  all  is  safe,  he  can  quit  his  retreat,  or 
if  all  be  not  right  he  can  quietly  sink  and  remain  in  his  cool  and  unapproachable 
retreat  at  the  bottom,  occasionally  rising  and  protruding  his  muzzle  only  for  ths 
necessary  air  supply,  and  then  down  again. 

4CO.   WJiy  is  the  rhinoceros  so  catted  ? 

From  a  Greek  word  signifying  nose-horn,  in  reference  to  the 
horny  projection  upon  the  snout,  which  is  a  characteristic  of  these 
animals.  The  rhinoceros  unicornis  has  one  horn,  and  the  rhinocem 
focornis  has  two. 


154 


THE   REASON   WHY  : 


There  is  no  beast  but  hath  his  enemy  ;  as  the  conv  the 
polecat,  a  sheepe  the  woolfe,  the  elephant  the  rhinoceros,  and  so 
of  other  beasts  the  like." — HACKI.UYT. 


4G1.   Why 
ap2'endages  ? 


the     rhinoceros    provided    with    these     horny 


Because  the  animal  feeds  upon  the  branches  of  trees  and  other 

vegetable  matter.  Some  of 
the  trees  yielding  con 
siderable  resistance,  the 
rhinoceros  uses  its  horn,  or 
horns,  as  a  kind  of  punch  or 
axe  to  sever  the  fibre,  and 
bring  down  its  food. 

Having  obtained  a  branch, 
he  first  devours  the  leaves 
and  smaller  stems,  and  then, 
placing  his  snout  as  low  in 
the  trunk  as  he  finds  his 
horns  will  enter,  he  rips  up 
the  main  trunk,  splitting  it 
into  thin  pieces,  like  so  many 
laths  ;  and  he  then  crushes 
the  pieces  so  prepared  with 
his  powerful  jaws. 


462.  When  we  speak  of  horns  our  imagination  pictures  such  as  we  are  familiar 
with  in  the  ox  ;  but  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  nasal  horn  of  the  rhinoceros 
presents  a  similar  structure.  The  nasal  horn  of  the  ox  consists  of  a  bony 
cone,  or  process  from  the  skull,  encased  in  a  horny  sheath.  The  nasal  horn  of 
the  rhinoceros  is  a  solid  mass,  structurally  composed  of  agglutinate/ A  fibres, 
analogous  to  hair,  and  much  resembling  those  into  which  whalebone  is  so  easily 
separable. 


The  horn  of  the  rhinoceros,  originating  as  it  does  in  the  skin  only,  has  none  of  its 
sensibility.  The  form  of  the  disc  of  skin  to  which  it  is  attached,  and  the  fact  of  its 
attachment  equally  to  all  parts  of  that  disc,  give  it  a  strength  of  base  which  no 
other  horn  possesses;  and  its  fibrous  structure  throughout  make  it  secure  from 
fracture  from  any  cross:  strain.  The  circumstance  of  its  being  placed  over  the  bone 
of  the  nose  completely  prevents  any  concussion  of  the  brain,  even  from  the  most 
violent  use  of  it ;  and  its  central  position  admits  of  its  being  employed  with  the 
powur  of  the  animal. 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  155 


Down  sank  the  monster  bulk,  and  press'd  the  ground, 

His  anus  and  clattering  shield  on  the  vast  body  sound." — DUYDEN, 


The  horns  are  also  used  as  tccapons  of  defence  ;  and  in  one  cf  the  species,  at  least, 
the  horns,  which  are  moveable  in  a  quiescent  state,  become  fixed  and  imtnoveabte 
when  the  animal  is  enraged,.  When  moving  through  dense  jungles,  rhinoceri 
carry  their  heads  low,  and  p'/nigh.  their  way  through  the  matted  and  entangled 
vegetation. 

463.  Wliy  are  the,  eye*  of  the  rhinoceros  placed  so  low  down 
in  the  head? 

Because,  from  the  great  bulk  of  the  body,  the  range  of  sight 
would  be  much  more  limited  were  they  placed  higher  in  the  head 
at  a  point  having  a  more  restricted  orbit  of  motion.  Set  upon  a 
lengthened  axis,  every  partial  turn  of  the  head  extends  the  range 
of  sight. 

464.  Why  are  the  ears  of  the  rhinoceros  very  moveable  and 
quick  of  motion  ? 

Because,  notwithstanding  the  advantageous  position  of  the  eyes, 
from  the  great  bulk  of  the  body,  and  low  position  of  the  head,  the 
range  of  sight  is  more  restricted  than  in  other  animals.  The 
rhinoceros,  therefore,  relies  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  sense 
of  hearing ;  the  ears  are,  consequently,  exceedingly  sensitive,  and 
endowed  with  moveable  powers,  which  enable  them  to  be  instantly 
turned  to  the  point  of  danger.  This  mobility  of  the  ears  is  all  the 
more  remarkable  when  we  consider  the  hardness  of  the  general 
covering  of  the  rhinoceros. 

465.  IVliy  does  the    skin    of  the  rhinoceros  exhibit  numerous 
folds  ? 

Dr.  Parsons  observes  that  if  the  head  and  inflexible  skin  of  the 
•rhinoceros  were  continued  all  over  the  creature,  as  the  skins  of 
other  animals,  without  any  folds,  he  could  not  bend  any  way,  nor 
perform  any  necessary  action  ;  but  that  suppleness  in  the  skins  of 
other  quadrupeds  which  renders  them  flexible  in  all  parts,  is  very 
well  compensated  in  this  animal  by  those  folds  ;  for,  since  it  was 
necessary  his  skin  should  be  hard  for  his  defence,  it  was  a  noble 
contrivance  that  his  skin  should  be  ?o  soft  and  smooth  underneath 


156  THE   REASON    WHf  : 


The  nose  was  ugly,  long,  and  big, 

Broad,  and  snouty  like  a  pig ; 

Which  showed  he  would  in  dunghills  love  to  dig." — OTWAY. 


that  when  he  bends  himself  any  way,  one  part  of  his  board-like 
skin  should  slip  or  shove  over  the  other  ;  and  that  these  several 
folds  should  be  placed  in  such  parts  of  his  body  as  might  facilitate 
the  performance  of  every  voluntary  motion  he  might  be 
disposed  to  make. 

466.  This  view  is  further  enforced  by  the  fact,  that  in  the  rTiinoecros  blcornis, 
the  hide  of  which  is  not  so  hard,  the  same  extent  of  folding  does  not  exist. 
The  Indian  rhinoceros  is  the  most  remarkable  for  the  density  of  its  skin.  In  this 
species  it  is  thrown  into  large  folds,  which  add  to  the  uncouth  appearance  of  the 
animal,  and  form  a  sort  of  armour,  very  difficult  to  be  pierced  :  hence  it  is  manu 
factured  into  shields  and  the  like.  The  arrangement  of  the  folds,  or  rather  solid 
plates  with  folded  edges,  is  as  follows  : — Around  the  neck,  which  is  short  and  deep, 
the  skin  forms  two  large  folds,  of  which  the  last  hangs  over  the  front  of  the  chest. 
The  shoulders  are  covered  with  a  thick  hard  plate,  falling  in  a  fold  over  the  top  of 
the  fore  limbs,  and  separated  also  by  a  posterior  fold  for  the  plate  covering  of  the 
body.  This  is  folded  across  the  top  of  the  crupper,  the  fold  running  down  just 
below  the  haunch-bones,  and  loosing  itself  on  the  belly.  The  crupper-plate  is 
divided  by  a  longitudinal  fold  running  to  the  root  of  the  tail  on  each  side  from  a 
large  crural  plate,  which  hangs  in  a  deep  fold  over  the  thighs.  Between  the  folds 
the  skin  is  soft  and  flexible,  and  of  a  pale  pink  or  flesh  colour ;  but  everywhere  else 
It  is  Kai  1  and  dense,  and  covered  with  horny  incrustations.  Hence,  were  it  not  for 
thep-e  folds,  the  animal  would  necessarily  be  restricted  in  his  motions. 

467.   Why    has   the   tapir   an  indurated    skin    over    the   head 
and  neck  ? 

Because,  in  seeking  its  food, 
it  pushes  its  way  through 
dense  brush-wood.  Being  al 
most  defenceless,  it  also  flies 
from  its  enemies  into  the 
densest  thickets,  which  it  does! 
with  considerable  ease  and 
speed. 

Its  head  is  remarkably 
well  adapted  for  boring 
through  tangled  places,  being  in  the  form  of  a  conical  wedge, 
and  so  thick  toward  the  posterior  part,  tjjat  wherever  it  opena 
a  way,  the  rest  of  the  bqdv  can  pasjf 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  157 


"  The  bristled  boar    .     .     . 

New  grinds  his  arming1    usks  and  digs  the  ground, 
He  rubs  his  sides  agair  st  a  tree — prepares 
And  hardens  both  his  sioulders  for  the  wars." — CARKY. 

The  head  and  neck,  as  far  as  the  shoulders,  being  fortified  with 
a  shield  of  thickened  skin,  the  tapir  can  the  more  readily  plunge 
through  the  thicket,- than  if  its  fore  quarters  were  covered  only 
with  an  ordinary  skin. 

468.  Why  have  hogs  thick  muscular  necks  ? 

Because  their  habit  of  rooting  up  the  ground  in  quest  of  the 
yege table  stores  that  lie  beneath  its  surface,  renders  considerable 
force  necessary.  The  form  of  the  snout,  the  motions  of  which  its 
cartilaginous  tip  is  capable,  and  the  efficacy  of  the  hind  hoofs,  and 
powerful  hocks,  in  1  hrowing  the  neck  and  shoulders  well  up  to  their 
work,  are  equally  tributary  to  this  natural  habit. 

Sir  Charles  Bell,  adverting  to  the  peculiar  anatomy  of  the 
hog,  says  : — 

"  The  formation  of  the  skull  and  of  the  spine,  and  the  mass  of  muscle  in  the  neck, 
all  show  the  intention  that  he  shall  drive  onward  with  his  whole  weight  and 
strength,  so  that  he  may  rend  with  his  tusks.  Accordingly,  we  see  that  the  back 
part  of  the  skull  rises  in  remarkable  spines  or  ridges  for  the  attachment  of  muscles, 
and  that,  corresponding  with  these,  spinous  processes  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck 
and  back  are  of  extraordinary  length  and  strength.  These  processes  distinctly 
indicate  the  power  of  the  muscles  which  pass  from  the  neck  to  the  head.  We  now 
understand  the  reason  of  the  shortness  and  inflexibility  of  the  neck,  because  the 
power  of  the  shoulders  is  directed  to  the  head,  and,  we  may  say,  to  these  large 
tusks.  An  elongated  and  flexible  neck  would  have  rendered  these  provisions 
useless.  The  characteristic  form  of  the  wild  boar,  then,  consists  in  the  height  o/ 
the  back,  the  shortness  and  thickness  of  the  neck,  the  wedge  shape  of  the  head, 
the  projection  of  the  tusks,  and  the  shortness  of  the  four  limbs,  which  must  always 
be  in  proportion  to  the  neck." 

469.  Why  is  the  Indian  hog  furnished  with  long  crooked  tush  ? 
It  has  been  asserted  by 

some  authors  that  the 
animal  is  in  the  habit  of 
sleeping  standing,  and  that 
in  doing  so,  it  steadies  its 
body  by  hooking  the 
tusKs  on  to  the  branch  of 
a  tree. 

Independently     of     this 


158  THE   REASON   WHY 


11  And  up  and  downe  as  he  that  forest  sought, 
He  met,  he  saw,  a  bore,  with  luskes  great 
That  slept  agenst  the  bright  sunne's  heat." — CHAUCER. 

doubtful  application,  the  tusks,  which  rise  out  of  the  mouth, 
and  curl  upwards  before  the  eyes  in  a  very  singular  manner, 
afford  protection  to  the  organs  of  vision,  while  the  hog  rushes 
through  thick  brushwood.  These  tusks  are  also  used  in  extremity 
as  weapons  of  defence. 

470.  All  weapons  of  attack  which  animals  use  when  danger  is  apprehended,  con 
tribute  directly  to  the  killing  or  capture  of  that  upon  which  they  feed.     But  the 
tusks  of  the  hog  species  do  not  in  any  way  assist  them  in  the  procuring  of  their 
food.     They  never  use  them  but  for  the  purpose  of  defence,  and  though  we  are  apt 
to  suppose  that  they  make  wanton  and  vicious  attacks,  we  should,  were  we  able  to 
analyse  all  the  cases,  invariably  find  that  the   apprehension  of  danger,  of  some 
description  or  other,  is  the  cause.    If  the  defence  of  the  animal  is  personal  only,  it 
seldom,  if  ever,  shows  fight,  unless  directly  assailed ;  but  almost  all  animals  have 
occasionally,  at  least,  other  defences  besides  that  of  their  own  persons.    The  temale, 
the  young,  and  even  their  pasture,   are  at  times   objects  to  be  fought  for ;  and 
those  animals  which  are  not  carnivorous  are  generally  more  forward  and  more 
valiant  in  those  cases  than  when  the  object  is  simply  their  own  safety.    Hogs, 
probably,  have  more  powerful  instruments  of  defence  than  most  other  vegetable 
feeders.     Their  young  are  numerous,  and  quite  defenceless,  and  their  flesh  at  all 
ages  is,  in  a  state  of  nature,  sweeter,  perhaps,  than  that  of  any  other  race  of 
animals.* 

471.  Why  do  pigs  run  about  with  straws  in  their  mouths  when 
a  high  wind  is  approaching  ? 

Because  they  dread  the  discomfort  which  the  blast  will  occasion 
them,  and  are  induced  to  take  up  the  straws  with  an  undefined 
purpose  of  collecting  a  sufficient  store  to  protect  them  from  the 
inclement  storm.  This  object,  however,  they  seldom  or  ever 
accomplish.  Instinct  impels  the  animals  to  take  up  the  straws, 
but  intelligence  is  wanting  to  direct  them  where  to  deposit 
their  store.  The  wild  hog  probably  makes  a  bed  for  its  shelter, 
upon  the  approach  of  a  storm ;  and  we  see  the  same  instinct 
lingering  in  the  domesticated  animal. 

472.   Why  is  it  commonly  said  that  when  two  hogs  are  feedity 

Jier,  one  of  them  is  llsure  to  have  his  foot  in  the  trough?" 
Because  when  the  hog  meets  with  anything  that  requires  cutting 

•  Partington's  M  Cyclopedia.** 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  159 


"  Necre  to  the  shore  that  bord'red  on  the  rocke, 
No  merry  swaine  was  scene  to  feed  his  flocke, 
No  lusty  neat-heard  thither  drove  his  kine, 
No  boorish  hog-heard  fed  his  rooting  swine." — BROWNE. 

or  tearing,  it  brings  the  foot  into  action,  iu  order  to  strengthen 
the  hold,  and  for  this  purpose  frequently  set**  its  foot  in  the  trough 

473.  Why    is    it    said    that  pigs    "  cut    their   throats M    when 
swimming  ? 

Because  they  are  bad  swimmers  ;  their  fore  legs  being  set  closely 
under  them,  whenever  they  accidentally  fall  into  the  water  they 
lacerate  their  throats  with  the  sharp  points  of  their  cloven  feet. 

ORDER  VIII. — SOLID UNGULA.* 

474.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  solidunguia '/ 

It  is  derived  from  the  Latin — solidus,  solid,  and  ungula,  a  hoof. 
A  solidungulous  animal  is  one  the  hoofs  of  which  are  entire.  The 
same  animals  are  sometimes  called  solipeds}  from  solus,  alone,  or 
solidus,  and  pes,  foot. 

475.  Though  there  is  only  one  toe  fully  developed,  there  are  rudiments  of  two 
others  under  the  snin,  but  they  make  no  appearance  externally. 

476.  Why  are  solidungulous  animals  in  a,  wild  state  found 
chiefly  in  plains  ? 

Because  their  solid  feet  enable  them  to  bound  lightly  along  hard 
pastures  and  sandy  plains  ;  and  the  comparative  swiftness  of  some 
of  the  species,  and  the  power  of  endurance  in  others,  fit  them  for 
ranging  over  long  distances  in  search  of  their  food. 

477.  The  wild  ass,  the  zebra,  the  quagga,  and  also  the  wild  horse  of  central  Asia 
are  all  found  on  the  margins  of  great  sandy  deserts,  or,  at  least,  in  those  regions 
where  there  is  a  great  breadth  of  country,  which  is  alternately  drenched  with  rain 
and  burned  with  drought ;  or  where,  as  in  central  Asia,  the  general  character  is 
dryness.  They  are  not  found  on  mountains,  among  rocks,  or  in  close  forests,  like 
leer  and  goats ;  neither  do  they  follow  the  lines  of  the  great  rivers  and  the  rich 
savannahs  so  much  as  the  ox  tribe. 


«  Ibis  order  is  by  some  naturalists  made  a  sub-division  of  the 


itfO  THE    REASON    WHY  ; 


"  Fixed  on  the  goal,  his  eye  fore-run*  *he  course, 
His  hand,  unerring,  steers  the  steady  horse,; 
And  7iow  contra::. s,  or  now  extends  the  rein, 
Observing  still  the  foremost  on  the  plain." — POPK'S  HOMER. 

478.  Why  do  wild  horses  congregate  in  flocks  ? 

Because,  as  they  shift  their  ground  with  the  change  ot  seasons 
in  pursuit  of  new  pasturage,  the  same  necessity  operating  upon 
large  numbers  at  once,  they  become  gregarious,  and  acquire  habits 
of  association. 

479.  Why  are  the  colourings  and  markings  of  horses  so  varied  ? 

Numerous  conjectures  have  been  entertained  as  to  what  was  the 
original  colour  of  the  horse,  and  what  have  been  the  causes  of  the 
varieties  that  have  since  appeared,  but  the  inquiry  has  not  been 
attended  with  success. 


480.  The  various  colours  of  horses  would  seem  to  be  truly  original  and  inherent ; 
for  sunh  of  them  as  have,  from  a  state  of  domestication,  been  suffered  again  to  run 
wild,  have  retained  the  colour  they  carried  with  them,  although  their  form  has 
altered  by  being  submitted  to  the  agencies  of  climate.  Neither  have  the  original 
horses  of  different  countries,  according  to  the  accounts  of  travellers,  exhibited  in 
this  particular  any  individual  characteristic.  The  horses  of  the  east  are  not  darker 
than  those  of  the  north  ;  on  the  contrary,  we  have  white  Arabians ;  and  we  procure 
the  darkest  breeds  from  the  north  of  Europe,  while  in  llussia,  bright  bay  is  as 
common  a  colour  as  any  other.  Geographical  distribution  is  not,  however,  wholly 
without  its  influence  on  the  hair  ;  for  our  heavy  breeds,  drawn  from  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe,  are  very  frequently  black ;  but  a  full-blood  black  horse  is  very 
seldom  met  with.  Age  has  likewise  a  powerful  effect  on  the  tinting  of  the 
hair  ;  that  of  the  colt  alters  many  shades  ;  in  some  cases  it  becomes  much  lighter, 
and  in  others  altogether  much  darker  as  the  adult  period  arrives.  But  the 
alteration  which  takes  place  between  the  time  4f  full  growth  and  that  of  old  age. 
is  invariably  from  a  darker  to  a  lighter  hue. 

481.  Why,  when  two  horses  are  in  a  pasture,  do  we  frequently  see 
jne  of  them  nibbling  the  shoulder  or  neck  of  the  other? 

This  action  is  performed  for  the  purpose  of  extricating  the 
irritating  fly  known  as  the  bot,  which  commonly  attacks  horses 
in  the  parts  mentioned.  There  cannot  be  a  doubf  that  the  animals 
indicate  the  presence  of  this  annoyance  to  each  other,  for  when  one 
horse  has  had  the  fly  removed  from  him,  he  will  immediately  render 
the  same  service  to  his  companion. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  161 


*' Th  nk,  -when  we  talk  of  horses,  that  you  see  them,  printing 
their  proud  hoofs  in  the  receiving  earth."— SHAKSPERE. 


482.  Why  are  horses  furnished  with  strong  hairs  on  the  upper 
and  lower   lips  ? 

These  instruments  are  designed  for  keeping  flies  and  insects  from 
annoying  them,  by  getting  into  their  nostrils  while  they  are  grazing. 
They  are  sufficiently  close  together  for  that  purpose  ;  and  moving 
as  they  do  while  the  horse  is  feeding,  serve  to  brush  away 
anything  offensive. 

483.  Why  does  the  appearance  of  much  "  white "   in  the  eye  of  a 
horse,  indicate   a  vicious  nature  ? 

Because  a  high-tempered  horse  constantly  looks  about,  appre 
hensive  of  danger,  or  desiring  to  do  mischief.  The  quick  motion 
of  the  eyeball  in  opposite  directions  exposes  an  unusually  large 
surface  of  the  white,  which  thus  becomes  an  evidence  of  the  temper 
of  the  animal. 

484.  Why  has  the  horse  no  eye-brows  ? 

Because,  from  the  situation  of  the  eyes,  and  the  direction  of  the 
horse's  head,  either  when  running  or  feeding,  such  organs  would 
be  useless. 

There  are  hairs  on  the  upper  eye-lid,  and  especially  towards  tho 
outer  corner,  because  the  light  comes  from  above  ;  and  as  the 
animal  stands,  particularly  when  he  is  grazing,  and  from  the  lateral 
situation  of  the  eyes,  the  greater  portion  of  the  light,  the 
attacks  of  insects,  and  the  running  .down  of  moisture,  would  be 
chiefly  from  the  outside  or  temples.  Towards  the  inner  corner  of 
the  upper  lid  there  is  little  or  no  eyelash,  because  there  is  no 
probable  danger  or  obstruction  in  that  direction.  Only  a  small 
quantity  of  light  can  enter  from  below,  and  therefore  the  lashes 
are  there  short ;  but  as  in  the  act  of  grazing,  insects  may  more 
readily  climb  up  and  be  troublesome  to  the  eye,  towards  the  inner 
angle,  there  the  principal  or  only  hair  is  found  on  the  lower  lid. 

485.  Although  the  horse  has  no  syebrows,  there  are  several  hairs  or  bristles 
scattered  on  the  upper  eyelid,  an .  there  is  a  ^m>jectin$j  fold  cf  the  lid  which 

a 


162 


TIIE    REASON    WHY  : 


Epirus  for  th'  Eleati  chariot  breeds 

(In  hopes  of  palms)  a  race  of  running:  steeds." — DRYDEN. 


discharges  the  same  office.  This  is  by  some  persons  erroneously  associated  witfc 
weakness  or  disease  of  the  eye.  But  it  is,  in  fact,  a  provision  of  nature  to 
accomplish  a  certain  purpose,  and  is  in  no  way  connected  with  either  health  or 
disease. 

486.    Why  is  the  lest  form  of  horse,  such  as  the  English  racer, 

peculiarly  fitted  for  swift  running  ? 

Because  the  mechanism 
of  the  frame  is  based  on 
the  most  correct  geometrical 
principles,  presenting  a 
series  of  lengthened  levers 
acting  by  means  of  a  con 
densed  muscular  and  ten- 
donous  organization  of  great 
power,  on  angles  capable  of 
great  flexion  and  extension ; 
while  his  pointed  form  fits 
him  to  cleave  the  atmos 
phere,  from  which  his  deep 

chest  enables  him  to  take  extensive    inspirations  to   invigorate 

his   exertions. 

487.  The  essential  points  in  the  form  of  a  horse  differ  as  much  as  the  uses  he  is 
put  to  vary.  That  which  would  approach  perfection  in  one  variety  would  be 
defective  in  another.  The  finest-formed  racer  that  ever  bounded  over  the  turf  at 
Newmarket,  would  cut  a  sorry  figure  in  a  London  coal- waggon ;  while  one  of 
Barclay's  splendid  specimens  of  the  heavy  draught-horse  would  be  even  more 
misplaced  if  entered  for  the  Derby.  To  be  able  to  form  a  tolerably  correct 
estimate  of  the  capability  of  each  variety  of  the  horse  to  perform  the  duties  required 
of  it,  from  a  view  of  the  general  figure,  constitutes  the  very  feather  in  the  cap  of 
the  horse  amateur.  But  to  accomplish  it  requires  much  experience,  and  a  long 
habit  of  observation,  comparison,  and  reflection.* 

488.   Why  has  the  horse  a  large  square  jaw  under  the  ear? 

To  enable  the  teeth  to  bear  great  pressure,  they  are  socketed 
very  deeply  in  the  jaw ;  and  as  the  strength  of  the  muscles  of 


*  Blaine's  "  Rural  Sports.' 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


163 


There  from  the  sunburnt  hay  field  homeward  creeps 
The  loaded  wain  ;  while,  lightened  of  its  charge, 
The  wain  that  meets  it  passes  swiftly  by  ; 
The  boorish  driver,  leaning  o'er  his  team." — DRYDEX. 

mastication  is  applied,  is  not  merely  to  close  the  jaws,  but  to  grind, 
or  to  rub  the  teeth  both  laterally  and  to  and  fro,  extraordinary 
space  is  provided  in  the  jaws  for  the  lodgment  of  a  powerful 
muscle  which  has  the  double  action  of  closing  the  teeth,  and  of 
drawing  the  lower  jaw  across  the  upper. 

489.  Why  does  a  "  heavy  shoulder  "  in  a  horse  indicate  that  he  it 
slow,  and  apt  to  tumble  ? 

Because  this  heaviness,  as  it  is  commonly  termed,  results  from 

the  uprig'it  position  of 
the  shoulder  blade,  which 
position  prevents  it  from 
revolving  freely,  and  so 
retards  the  forward  mo 
tion  of  the  foot. 

The  main  condition  of 
swiftness  in  a  horse  is 
that  the  shoulderbone 
should  be  oblique,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration, 
and  that  the  transition 

from  the  neck  to  the  shoulders  instead  of  being  abrupt,  should 

display  a  smooth  undulating  surface. 

490.  Why  are  horses  with  deep  bellies,  such  as  the  Suffolk  punch, 
the  best  calculated  for  continuous  employment  ? 

Because  when  their  bodies  are  thus  formed,  they  carry  their  food 
for  a  long  time,  and  consequently  are  enabled  to  bear  a  longer 
and  a  harder  day's  work. 

491.  The  Suffolk  punch  is  particularly  esteemed  by  the  farmers  of  Norfolk, 
Suffolk,  and  Essex  ;  and  it  is  well  known  that  in  these  districts  where  this  kind  of 
horse  is  used,  that  the  farmers  are  able  to  plough  more  land  in  a  day  than  can  be 
performed  in  any  other  part  of  England. 

Of  all  creatures,  the  horse  has  the  smallest  stomach  relatively  to  its  size.  Had 
he  the  quadruple  ruminating  stomack  of  the  ox,  he  would  not  have  been  at  all 


164  THE    REASON    WHY  : 


And  early  with  thy  team  the  glebe  in  furrows  turn, 

That,  while  the  turf  lies  open  and  unbound, 

Succeeding  suns  may  bake  the  mellow  ground." — DK.YDKN. 


times  ready  for  exertion;  the  traveller  could  n  ;':  have  baited  his  steed,  and  resumed 
his  journey.  The  stomach  of  the  horse  is  not  so  capacious,  even  when  distended, 
as  to  impede  his  wind  and  speed;  and  the  food  passes  onward  with  a  greater 
degree  of  regularity  than  in  any  other  animal.  If  a  horse  drinks  a  pail  of  water, 
in  eight  minutes  none  of  this  water  is  in  the  stomach  ;  it  is  rapidly  passed  off  into 
the  large  intestine,  &c. 

492.  IVTiy  has  the  horse  no  gall-bladder  ? 

Because  the  process  of  digestion  in  the  horse  is  almost  incessant, 
and  the  bile  passes  off  as  rapidly  as  it  is  formed.  In  other  cases 
there  is  a  gall-bladder,  in  which  the  bile  is  stored  until  required 

Where  the  digestive  process  is  performed  in  a  large  stomach, 
and  the  food  descends  in  large  quantities,  and  at  long  intervals,  a 
gall-bladder  is  necessary  ;  and  there  is  the  sympathy  between  the 
stomach  and  gall-bladder,  that  they  are  filled  and  emptied  at 
the  same  time  * 

493.  Why  have  aged,  horses  cavities  just  above  their  eyes  ? 

Because  in  old  horses  most  of  the  fat  of  the  body,  which  is  more 
superficially  placed  in  the  young,  becomes  absorbed  ;  in  this  way, 
the  eye,  which  is  usually  embedded  in  a  large  quantity  of  this 
matter,  losing  its  assistance,  sinks  within  the  orbits,  and  thus  the 
ca.vities,  called  eye-pits,  show  themselves. 

494.  Why  may  the  age  of  a  horse  be  judged  by  the  appearance 
of  the   teeth? 

Because  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  incisors  a  hollow  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  young  tooth,  which,  not  extending  through  the  whole 
substance,  naturally  wears  out  with  the  wear  of  the  tooth,  and  as  a 
considerable  degree  of  regularity  occurs  in  the  wearing  away  in  all 
horses,  it  has  been  adopted  as  the  general  criterion  of  age. 

495.  Why    should    the    grain    which    is     given    to    horses    be 
previously   crushed  ? 

Because,  owing  to  the  unsuitableness  of  the  1 3eth  for  masticating 
*  Paley's  "  Natural  Theology." 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  166 


FOW,  do  thy  speedy  utmost,  Meg, 

And  win  the  key-stane  ot  the  brig; 

There  at  them  thou  thy  tail  may  toss, 

A  running;  stream  they  dare  not  cross." — BURNS. 

pure  grain,  which  in  a  state  of  nature  the  horse  would  never  be 
called  upon  to  do,  the  grains  frequently  find  their  way  Into 
the  stomach  whole,  and  consequently  yield  comparatively  little 
or  no  nourishment. 

496.  Why,  when   horses  are   early  and  hard- worked,   do   they 
never  arrive  at  their  full  size  ? 

Because  the  earthy  deposit  of  the  bones  is  usually  proportioned 
to  the  wants  of  the  animal,  and  is  most  abundant  in  those  whose 
exertions  are  considerable.  But  from  this  very  circumstance, 
when  the  animal  is  subjected  to  premature  exertion,  the  consoli 
dation  of  the  bones  becomes  more  complete  before  their  softer 
portion  has  increased  to  its  full  dimensions,  and  hence  growth  is 
arrested. 

497.  Why  will  a  horse,  if  unchecked  and  unguided,  find  its 
own  way  on  a  dark  night  ? 

Because  its  eye,  in  addition  to  being  well  adapted  for  vision 
during  the  day,  is,  from  the  form  of  the  retina,  peculiarly  adapted 
to  receive  impressions  by  night. 

498.  In  the  darkness  of  night,  when  the  traveller  knows  not  the  way,  and  would 
be  incapable  of  reaching  his  home,  his  faithful  horse  will  carry  him  in  safety 
through  the  most  difficult  places  ;  and  be  the  path  ever  so  intricate,   and  the 
obstacles  ever  so  many,  if  the  rein  is  entirely  given  up,  not  a  foot  of  his  will  slip  or 
be  misplaced  in  the  most  difficult  ground,  and  not  one  of  the  obstacles  will  he  come 
in  contact  with.    This  is  a  curious  point  in  physiology,  but  it  is  as  true  as  it  is 
worthy  of  admiration.     The  firm  and  entire  hoof  of  the  horse,  even  when  shod 
with  iron,  seems  to  acquire  in  the  dark  a  sense  of  touch  equal  to  the  most  delicate 
finger ;   and,  though  we    cannot   accour  *  for    it,  every    hair    upon  the  skin   of 
the  animal  appears  to  be    instinct    wit.    all    the  senses   necessary  for  guiding 
him  along,  with  the  same  certainty  as  though  it  were  clear  daylight  all  about  him. 
If  the  horse  and  the  rider  have  been  long  acquainted  with  each  other,  and  have 
frequently  made  nocturnal  journeys,  it  is  of  no  consequence,  if  the  journey  is  a 
homeward  one,  whether  the  rider  pays  t  e  slightest  attention  to  the  matter  or  not ; 
for  there  have  baen  many  instances  in  which  an  old  and  trusty  horse  has  carried 
his  rider  asleep  for  a  distance  of  more  than  twenty  miles.    There  have  been  also 
•Instances  of  favourite  ponies  carrying  blind  musicians  from  house  to  house  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  lessons ;  and  indeed  it  would  be  impossible  to  em  merate  half  the 


lt)8  THE    REASON    WHY  . 


He  taught  men  the  forth  drawynge 

Of  bestaile,  and  eke  the  makynge 

Of  oxen,  and  of  horn  the  same, 

How  men  should  them  ride  and  tame." — GOWER. 

which  are  well  authenticated,  of  quiet  and  slow-going  horses  finding  and 
Keeping  the  wiy  without  any  assistance  from  their  riders,  and  the  same  applies  to 
horses  habitually  used  in  draught.* 

499.  }Vhy  is  the  system  pursued  by  Mr.  Rarey  so  efficacious 
in  taming  vicious  horses? 

Because,  without  inflicting  pain  upon  the  animal,  it  fixes  upon  his 
memory  the  fact — that  man  is  his  master.  All  animals  are  subdued 
that  once  become  aware  of  this  ;  and  they  owe  their  subjection  to 
each  other  to  a  similar  consciousness. 

000.  Mr.  Ilarey's  system  consists  of  rendering  a  horse  perfectly  helpless— not  by 
punishment  in  the  ordinary  sense — but  by  depriving  him  of  the  use  of  one  of  his 
legs  by  the  simple  contrivance  of  a  buckle  and  strap,  which  doubles  the  near  fore 
leg  upon  the  fore  arm,  and  renders  the  animal  helpless  without  inflicting   pain. 
While  in  this  subdued  condition  the  horse  is  laid  or  thrown  upon  his  side,  and  ia 
then  attended,  spoken  to,  caressed,  shown  different  objects  which  he  had  hitherto 
dreaded,  and  made  familiar  with  sounds  that,  under  other  circumstances,  would 
alarm  him.     In  connection  with  all  these  trials  he  is  constantly  caressed  by  the 
operator  until  he  gains  assurance,  and  when  at  last  he  is  released  from  subjection 
by  the  hand  of  his  attendant,  he  regards  man  as  not  only  his  master  but  his  friend. 
The  communication  of  such  a  lesson  demands  patience,  and  an  occasional  repetition ; 
but  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  efficiency  in  subduing,  if  not  in  eradicating,  the 
vice  of  horses. 

The  principles  of  Mr.  Rarey's  system  are  embodied  in  the  following 
propositions: — 

1.  That  any  horse  may  be  taught  to  do  anything  that  a  horse  can  do,  if  taught  in 
a  proper  manner. 

2.  That  a  horse  is  not  conscious  of  his  own  strength,  until  he  has  resisted  and 
conquered  a  man  ;  and  that  man,  having  the  advantage  of  reasoning  powers,  can 
handle  a  horse  in  such  a  manner  that   he  shall  not  know  his  superior  strength. 

3.  That  by  enabling  a  horse  to  examine  erery  object  with  which  we  desire  to 
make  him  familiar,   with  organs  naturally  used  for  that  purpose,  viz.,  seeing, 
smelling,  and  feeling,  you  may  take  any  object  around,  over,  and  on  him,  that  does 
not  actually  hurt  him.+ 

Many  animals  live  in  a  state  of  perhaps  more  close  domestication  than  the  horse 
does  ;  and  the  dog  especially,  being  one  which  in  a  state  of  nature  requires  more 
art  and  stratagem  for  finding  his  food,  is  capable  of  evincing  his  attachment  to  his 
master  in  a  variety  of  ways.  The  dog  will  fight  for  his  master,  will  fawn  upon  hia 
master,  and  will  watch  and  defend  his  master's  property  with  a  fidelity  perhajr 

*  Partington's  "Cyclopaedia."  f  "An  of  Taming  TTnrfiou" 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  167 


"  As  T  hen  a  dull  mill  asse  comes  near  a  goodly  field  of  corne, 
Kept  trom  the  birds  by  children's  cries  :  the  boys  are  overborne 
By  his  insensible  approach,  and  simply  he  will  eat,          [beat."— 
About  whom  many  wands  are  broke,  and  still  the  children      CHAPMAN. 

unequalled  by  the  human  race.  The  horse  does  not  fight  for  himself,  for  his  natura 
is  the  very  opposite  of  pugnacious  ;  ILe  horse  docs  not  fawn,  for  the  spirit  of  the 
hor*p  is  noble ;  but,  if  the  expression  may  be  used,  he  stands  to  his  lider 
more  in  the  relation  of  companion  and  equal  than  any  other  animal  stands  to  man. 
There  is,  also,  in  the  gratified  look,  the  erected  eai-s,  the  arching  neck,  and  the 
subdued  and  murmuring  neigh  of  the  horse,  at  the  sight  of  that  rider  with  whom  he 
hixs  ix'eu  long  associated,  something  more  touching — or,  if  you  will,  more  poetical — 
thai.  ir.  the  fawning  of  all  the  dogs  in  the  world.  Then  there  is  no  danger  which  the 
aurse  will  not  brave  along  with  his  rider,  and  on  those  occasions  man  very  often 
borrows  courage  of  the  spirit  of  the  animal.* 

501.  Why  is  the  ass  better  kept  on  commons,  than  in  meadowg 
and  pastures  ? 

tecause  it  is  naturally  an  inhabitant  of  the  wilderness,  and  is 
most  at  home  browsing  among  rough  and  tall  plants.  In  pastures, 
although  it  becomes  sleek  and  fat,  it  at  the  same  time  gets  indolent 
and  less  strong  and  enduring.  Besides,  if  the  ground  is  soft,  the 
hoofs  of  the  ass,  which  are  by  nature  adapted  for  hard  and  dry 
surfaces,  become  enlarged  and  unnaturally  extended,  which  makes 
the  feet  unsightly,  and  the  gait  of  the  animal  awkward — 
circumstances  which  do  not  happen  when  it  is  located  upon 
the  dry  common. 

502.  IVliy    is    ass's    milk     so    well    adapted    for  invalids  ? 

Because  it  contains  much  saccharine  matter,  and  but  little 
butter  ;  hence  it  is  capable  of  being  digested  by  stomachs  unequal 
to  the  task  of  assimilating  the  richer  milk  of  the  cow. 

f»'">3.   Why  are  mules  said   to   be  stubboi'n  ? 

Mules  are  commonly  used  for  travelling  over  mountainous 
countries  and  dangerous  precipices.  They  are  chosen  for  this 
purpose,  because  they  are  sure-footed,  and  have  great  powers  of 
endurance.  Being  frequently  heavily  burdened  they  acquire  a 
habit  of  treading  with  great  caution  ;  and  this  necessity  influencing 
the  habits  of  successive  generations,  has  imparted  to  them, 
when  travelling  on  ordinary  roads,  an  air  of  sluggishness  ftnd 
•elf-will 

*  Fartington's  "  Cyrlopaodiu." 


168 


THE   REASON   WHY  t 


"  This  said,  his  brass-Aoo/etf  winged  horse  he  did  to  chariot  binde, 
Whose  crest  was  fring'd  with  manes  if  gold,  and  golden  garments  shin'd.* 

THE  ILIAD. 


504.  "When  these  animal  come  to  one  of  the  descents  alluded  to,  they  stop  of 
themselves,  without  being  checked  by  the  rider ;  and,  if  he  inadvertently 
attempt  to  spur  them  on,  they  remain  immoveable.  They  seem  to  contemplate 
the  danger  which  lies  before  them,  and  prepare  themselves  for  the  difficulty.  They 
not  only  attentively  view  the  road,  but  will  sometimes  tremble  and  snoi't  at  the 
danger.  Having  prepared  for  their  descent,  they  place  their  fore  feet  in  a  posture 
as  if  they  were  stopping  themselves  ;  they  then  also  put  their  hinder  feet  together, 
but  a  little  forward,  as  if  they  were  about  to  lie  down;  then,  moving  with 
unerring  caution,  they  proceed  forward. 


505.    Why   are    the    zebra  and    onaga    found 
mountainous  places  ? 


hilly    and 


Because,  although  closely  allied  to  horses  and  quaggas,  which 
are  never  found  but  on 
plains,  their  hoofs  are 
differently  formed,  being 
adapted  to  the  nature  of 
the  footing  afforded  by 
hilly  and  mountainous 
districts. 

The  hoofs  of  horses  are 
round  and  flat ;  in  the  ass 
they  are  oval  and  hollow, 
and  in  zebras  and  onagas 
they  are  oval  at  the  toe, 
and  square  at  the  heel,  by 
the  spreading  of  that  part 
which  is  termed  the  "  frog." 
This  causes  the  limb  to 
stand  more  vertically  upon 
the  postern,  and  gives  a 
sharp,  firm  tread  upon 
declivities. 

506.  The  zebra  is,  perhaps,  of  all  quadrupeds  the  best  made  and  the  most  beauti 
fully  clad  by  the  hand  of  nature.  To  the  figure  and  graces  of  the  horse,  it  adds  the 
elegance  of  the  stag ;  and  the  black  and  white  bands  with  which  its  body  is 
ornamented  are  arranged  with  such  wonderful  symmetry  that  we  might  almost  b« 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  169 


"  Others,  filled  with  pasturage,  gazing  sat, 
Or  bedward  ruminating." — MILTON. 


disposed  to  imagine  that  rule  and  compass  had  been  employed  in  their  formation. 
These  alternate  bands  are  narrow,  parallel,  and  exactly  separated ;  they  extend 
not  only  over  the  body,  but  the  head,  thighs,  and  legs,  and  even  over  the  ears  and 
tail.  They  follow  so  exactly  the  contours  of  the  different  parts,  enlarging  more  or 
less  according  to  the  development  of  the  muscles,  and  the  roundness  of  the  different 
forms,  that  they  exhibit  the  entire  figure  in  the  most  advantageous  point  of  view. 
In  the  female  these  bands  are  alternately  black  and  white,  in  the  male  they  are 
black  and  yellow,  hut  always  of  a  lively  and  brilliant  tint.  They  also  rest  upon  a 
ground  of  short,  fine,  and  copious  hairs,  whose  lustre  considerably  augments  the 
general  beauty  of  the  colours,* 


ORDER  IX.— RUMINANTIA. 

507.  WTiy  are  the  animals  of  the  ninth  order  called  ruminants  f 

Because  they  chew  again  the  food  which  has  been  swallowed, 
slightly  masticated.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Latin  rumino, 
from  rumen,  the  cud. 

508.  Why  do  numerous  herbivorous  animals  "  cJiew  the  cud?" 

Because  in  a  state  of  nature  they  are  liable  to  be  surprised 
and  preyed  upon  by  their  carnivorous  enemies  while  feeding. 
They  are  therefore  endowed  with  stomachs  capable  of  receiving  a 
large  quantity  of  food  in  a  crude  state,  and  with  the  power  of 
returning  it  again,  to  be  brought  under  the  action  of  the  teeth, 
when  the  animal  has  retired  to  a  place  of  comparative  security. 

509.  The  class  of  ruminants  feed  on  the  coarser  kind  o*  herbage  where  they  arc 
in  abundance ;  but  the  actual  nutritious  matter  is  small  in  quantity  compared  with 
the  mass.    There  is,  therefore,  an  obvious  necessity  for  a  more  complex  apparatus  to 
extract  the  smaller  proportion  of  matter  capable  of  being  animalized ;  hence  the 
various  preparations  for  digestion.    When  the  mass  is  digested,  the  nutritious  part 
is  still  small  in  proportion  to  the  whole ;  and,  to  permit  that  smaller  part  to  be  pre 
pared  and  carried  into  the  system,  the  intestinal  canal  must  be  long  and  complex, 
offering  resistance  to  the  rapid  descent  of  the  food,  and  giving  it  lodgment :  and 
thus  there  is  always  a  correspondence  between  the  complication  of  the  stomach  and 
the  length  of  the  intestines,  and  between  both  and  the  nature  of  the  food. 

It  is  further  remarkable,  that  when  animals  of  the  same  species  live  in  different 
•limates,  where  there  is  more  or  less  abundance  of  vegetabk  food,  there  is  -\n 

•  Buffon. 
8 


170  THE   REASON    5VHT  . 


The  condemned  English 

Sit  patiently,  and  inly  ruminate 

The  morning's  danger." — SHAKSPF.RE. 


adaptation  of  their  digestive  organs.  When  it  is  abundant,  the  configuration  o* 
the  intestines  which  is  intended  to  delay  its  descent  is  less  complex ;  when  the 
food  is  scarcer,  the  intestine  is  longer,  and  the  obstruction  afforded  by  the  valves 
is  greater. 

510.  How  is  the  process  of  rumination  conducted  ? 

The  stomachs  of  ruminating  animals  are  divided  into  four 
chambers,  of  which  the  first  three  are  so  disposed  that  the 
aliment  can  enter  at  the  will  of  the  animal  into  any  one  of 
them. 

511.  Tne  first  stomach,  or  paunch,  is  divided  outwardly  into  two  bag-like 
appendages  at  its  extremity,  and  is  slightly  separated  into  four  parts  on  the  inside. 
Here  are  received  the  masses  of  herbage,  rudely  broken  up  by  the  first  m«stication. 
But  no  true  digestion  occurs  here  ;  only  a  slight  maceration,  such  as  water  would 
produce  in  a  degree  of  moderate  heat.  The  herbage  is  afterwards  transmitted  in 
this  state  to  the  second  stomach,  or  honeycomb-bag,  so  called  from  the  honeycomb 
similarity  of  the  surface  of  its  coats  Here  the  herbage  is  arrested,  and  com 
pressed  into  small  maws,  or  balls,  which  are  thence  returned  at  leisure  successively 
to  the  mouth  for  re-mastication. 

During  this  operation  the  animal  remains  in  a  state  of  repose  until  all  the  herbage 
swallowed  has  undergone  the  action  of  the  molar  teeth  a  second  time.  The  aliment 
thus  re-masticated  is  transmitted  into  the  third  or  smallest  stomach,  the  laminfe  on 
the  walls  of  which  bear  a  resemblance  to  the  edges  of  the  leaves  of  a  book  when 
slightly  opened.  From  the  third  stomach  the  food  is  transmitted  into  the  fourth, 
which  is  next  in  size  to  the  first  stomach,  or  paunch,  and  with  an  internal  villous 
coat  similar  to  that  of  the  human  stomach,  with  large  longitudinal  wrinkles.  This 
last  is  the  chief  organ  of  digestion. 

The  first  three  stomachs  are  connected  with  each  other,  and  with  the  oesophagus,  or 
throat,  in  a  very  remarkable  way.  The  latter  tube  enters  just  where  the  paunch  and 
the  second  and  third  stomachs  approach  each  other ;  it  is  then  continued  with  the 
groove,  which  ends  in  the  third  stomach.  This  groove  is,  therefore,  open  to  the  first 
stomachs,  which  lie  to  its  right  and  left.  But  the  thick,  prominent  lips,  which  form  the 
margin  of  the  groove,  admit  of  being  drawn  together,  so  as  to  form  a  complete  canal, 
which  then  constitutes  a  direct  continuation  of  the  oesophagus  into  the  third  stomach. 
The  functions  of  this  very  singular  part  vary,  according  to  its  use  as  a  simple  groove, 
or  a  closed  canal.  In  the  first  case,  the  grass,  &c.,  is  passed,  after  a  very  slight  degree 
of  mastication,  into  the  paunch,  as  into  a  reservoir.  Thence  it  goes,  in  small  por 
tions,  into  the  second  stomach,  from  which,  after  further  maceration,  it  is 
propelled  into  the  oesophagus,  and  conveyed  by  a  muscular  backward  motion 
kito  the  mouth. 

It  is  here  ruminated,  and  again  swallowed,  during  which  the  groove  is  closed. 
And  tLe  food,  aftei  this  second  mastication,  is  thereby  conducted  directly  into  tho 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  371 


"  By  Cinthia's  light,  and  on  the  pleasant  lawn, 

The  wanton  fairy  we  were  wont  to  chase, 
Which  to  the  nimble  dor  en -fooled  fawn, 
Upon  the  plain  durst  boldly  bid  the  race." — DRAYTON. 


third  stomach.  During1  the  short  time  which  it  stays  in  this  situation,  between  the 
folds  of  the  internal  coat,  it  is  still  further  prepared  for  digestion,  which  is  com 
pleted  in  the  fourth  or  digestive  stomach.  The  closing  of  the  groove,  as  already 
described,  which  determines  the  chamber  or  stomach  into  which  the  food  shall  be 
passed,  is  an  act  of  will  on  the  part  of  the  animal.  While  young  ruminant*  remain 
at  the  teat,  and  live  upon  milk,  the  fourth  stomach  is  the  largest.  The  first  stomach, 
or  paunch,  only  developes  itself  into  its  enormous  volume,  in  proportion  as  it 
receives  supplies  of  herbage,  which  increases  with  the  growth  of  the  animal. 

It  is  remarkable  that  this  faculty  of  rumination,  so  important  to  the  animals  in 
their  wild  state,  is  no  less  valuable  in  their  domesticated  condition  : 

Cows  stand  patiently  while  being  milked,  chewing  the  cud  the  while,  and  deriving 
gratification  thei-efrom. 

Being  driven  to  market,  they  are  able  to  take  with  them  a  store  of  food,  which 
serves  to  mitigate  their  hunger  during  a  period  of  abstinence  from  grazing. 

Sheep  disperse  their  flocks  and  fill  their  paunches,  and  then  draw  together  to  chew 
the  cud,  by  which  they  derive  warmth  during  cold  hours  of  the  night,  and 
obtain  shelter  from  occasional  storms. 

512.  Why  have  all  cawmali  which  chew  the  cud  cloven  feet? 

Because  the  splitting  of  the  foot  into  two  parts  adds  to  its 
spring  and  elasticity,  prevents  its  sinking  deeply  into  soft  ground, 
and  permits  it  to  be  more  easily  withdrawn.  As  these  animals 
usually  feed  upon  pastures  and  other  fertile  places,  it  will  be 
seen  that  this  conformation  of  the  foot  not  only  favours  the 
movements  of  the  animal,  but  renders  the  tread  less  destructive 
to  vegetation. 

513.  What   is   the   difference   between   the  dromedary   and   the 
camel  ? 

The  dromedary,  or  Arabian  camel,  has  one  hunch  on  the  back  ; 
the  Bactrian  camel  has  two  hunches.  The  dromedary  is  a  lighter 
variety  of  camel,  bearing  much  the  same  relation  to  the  ordinary 
camel  as  a  race-horse  or  hunter  does  to  a  cart-horse.  It  is  used 
principally  for  journeys  in  which  dispatch  is  required,  and  carries 
oiJy  a  single  rider  or  a  very  light  burden.  It  can  maintain  a 
trot  at  the  rate  of  from  six  to  eight  miles  an  hour,  for  twenty-four 
hours  consecutively ;  and  a  gentle  easy  amble  of  five  miles  an 


i  72 


THE     REASON  WHY 


"  Or  camels  knelt 
To  take  their  loads,  or  horsemen  scour'd  the  plain." — CAMPBELL. 


hour  can  be  kept  up  by  the  dromedary  for  several  days  and  nights 
almost  uninterruptedly. 

514.  Why  are  the"  earner 
and    the     "dromedary"    so 
called?" 

The  Arabic  verb  from 
which  the  name  camel  is  de 
rived,  signifies  to  please,  or 
to  behave  with  kindness  and 
humanity,  and,  in  its  appli 
cation,  has  reference  to  the 
docility  of  the  animal.  The 
Greek  word  from  which  the 
name  of  the  dromedary  is 
derived,  means  siviftness, 
running  ;  and  has  reference 
to  the  speed  of  the  beast. 

515.  IVhy  are  the    camel 
and  dromedary  furnished  with 
callosities  (or  hardnesses  of  the 
skin) ;    namely,  one  on  the 

breast,  and  two  on  each   side  of  the  fore  legs,  and  one   on  each 
side  of  the  hind  legs  ? 

They  are  thus  endowed  because  they  do  not  lie  on  their  sides, 
but  rest  and  sleep  with  their  knees  bent  under  their  bodies,  and 
their  breast  upon  the  ground  :  these  parts  require  to  be  particularly 
guarded  and  strengthened,  to  resist  the  weight  of  the  body,  which 
is  brought  to  bear,  both  when  the  animal  assumes  its  attitude  of 
repose,  and  when  it  rises  up. 

516.  Wliy  is  the  neck  of  the  camel  of  great  length,  and  extremely 
flexible  ? 

Because  this  structure  allows  the  animal  to  crop  leaves  from  the 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


"  The  tre^s,  devouring  caterpillars  bin-n : 
Parch'a  was  the  grass,  and  blighted  was  the  corn." — DRYDEN. 


tall  trees  upon  which  it  feeds,  and  also  to  bend  the  neck  when 
drinking  from  springs,  and  other  places  where  water  is  found  ? 

517.   }Vliy  has  the  dromedary  a  hump  upon  its  back  ? 

This  hump  is  an  accumulation  of  a  peculiar  species  of  fat  which 
is  not  liable  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  great  heat  to  which  the  animal 
is  exposed.  It  consists  chiefly  of  stearine,  or  hard  fat.  It  is,  in 
fact,  a  store  of  nourishment  beneficently  provided  against  the  day  of 
want,  to  which  the  animal  in  a  wild  state  is  often  exposed,  and  from 
which  he  is  not  entirely  exempted  in  a  state  of  domestication. 
The  dromedary  or  camel  can  exist  for  a  long  period  upon  this 
hump  alone,  without  any  other  food  ;  and  it  does  not  die  of  want 
until  the  hump  has  been  entirely  absorbed,  and  applied  to  the 
nourishment  of  the  system. 

518.  Animals  which  exist  chiefly  upon  vegetable  matter,  and  which  are  subject 
to  seasonal  vicissitudes  in  their  supply  of  food,  all  make  accumulations  of  fat  on 
some  part  of  their  bodies,  as  a  provision  against  the  failure  of  the  supply  of  food  ; 
and  their  tendency  to  this  habit  is  exactly  in  proportion  to  the  need  they  have  for  it. 
The  parts  of  the  body  in  which  this  accumulation  is  made,  and  the  consistency  of  the 
accumulated  substance,  are  both  very  important  points  in  the  geographica'  distribu 
tion  of  animals.  If  the  animal  winters  in  cold  latitudes,  the  accumulatiovi  cf  fat  is 
generally  distributed  over  the  surface,  and  the  substance  is  of  a  soft  and  oily 
nature.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  inhabits  warm  latitudes,  t  ie  accu 
mulation  is  chiefly  composed  of  a  crystallizable  fat,  and  is  generally  svoiated  on 
some  part  of  the  animal  where  it  is  least  likely  to  interrupt  its  labour  and  progress. 

519.  Why  is  the  formation  of  the  stomach  of  the  camel  and  th& 
dromedary  admirably  adapted  for  enabling  the  animal  to  kdc*,  long 
journeys  over  parched  deserts  ? 

Because  the  stomachs  of  these  animals  are  capable  oi  retaining 
large  quantities  of  water  unchanged  for  a  considerable  length  of 
time.  A  number  of  distinct  sacs  are  observed  to  lie  between  the 
membranes  of  the  second  stomach,  and  to  open  into  the  stomach 
near  the  top  by  small  square  apertures.  Through  these  orifices, 
after  the  stoir.ich  is  full,  the  annexed  bags  are  filled  :  aiu. 


174  THE   REASON   WHY: 


"  Precisions  and  plain  plodders  such 

Is  this,  and  so  is  that 
In  love  do  swallow  camels,  whilste 
They  nicely  straine  a  gnat." — WARREN. 

the  water  so  deposited  is,  in  the  first  place,  not  liable  to  pass  intc 
the  intestines  ;  in  the  second  place  is  kept  separate  from  the 
solid  element :  and,  in  the  third  place,  is  out  of  the  reach  of 
the  digestive  action  of  the  stomach,  or  of  mixture  with  the  gastric 
juice.  It  appears  that  the  animal,  by  the  conformation  of  its 
muscles,  possesses  the  power  of  squeezing  back  this  water  from  the 
adjacent  bags  into  the  stomach,  whenever  thirst  excites  it  to  put 
this  power  into  action. 

520.  Mr.  Partington,  from  whose  "Cyclopaedia"  we  have  several  times  quoted, 
calls  in  question  this  endowment  of  the  camel.  We  have  no  doubt,  however,  of 
the  capability  of  the  animal  in  this  respect,  though  we  think  the  fact  has  been 
exaggerated  and  wrongly  described.  That  travellers  have  ever  killed  camels,  and 
taken  supplies  of  water  from  their  second  stomachs,  is  unfounded,  though  fre 
quently  stated.  But  that  the  animal  is  capable  of  long  abstinence  from  water,  and 
that  it  derives  this  power  from  being  able  to  receive  and  retain  a  store  of  the  fluid 
either  in  the  cells  or  coats  of  one  or  all  of  his  stomachs,  there  cannot  be  the  slightest 
question. 

521.  Why  are  the  camel's  feet  provided   with  large   cushions 
or  pads  ? 

Because  a  foot  thus  furnished  is  best  adapted 
for  treading  upon  sand.  The  foot  of  the  camel  is 
planted  with  a  heavy  downward  stamp,  and  lifted 
up  straight  and  high.  The  oval  cushion  under 
neath  meets  the  sand  with  a  dead  pressure,  and 
therefore  has  little  tendency  to  sink  into  it.  The 
extremities  of  the  toes  are  fortified  by  flat  nails, 
which  have  a  very  slight  resemblance  to  proper  hoofs.  These  give 
firmness  to  the  cushion  that  lies  underneath.  The  cushion  also, 
being  a  non-conductor  of  heat,  prevents  the  heat  ct  the  sands  from 
distressing  the  animal  upon  its  journey. 

522.  With  what  other  peculiar  functions  is  the  camel  endowed, 
mitable  to  its  habits  and  employment? 

The  elevation  of  the  camel's  head  and  the  acuteness  of  its  sight 
and  smell,  enable  it  to  discern  the  green  oasis,  and  to  scent  the 
refreshing  water,  at  a  great  distance. 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  175 


Like  a*  a  /nastiff'e  having:  at  a  bay 

A  salvage  bull,  whose  cruell  homes  do  threat 

Desperate  daunger,  if  he  them  assay." — SPENSER. 


The  eye  is  shielded  from  the  intense  glare  of  light  by  a  prominent 
over-hanging  brow,  and  by  long  eyelashes,  and  the  nostrils  are  so 
constructed  as  to  be  closed  by  the  animal  at  pleasure,  so  as  to  keep 
out  the  fine  sand  which  is  being  continually  driven  by  the  wind. 

Its  natural  food  consists,  not  of  the  meadow  herbage  and  fat 
pastures  in  which  most  of  the  ruminants  delight,  but  of  thorny 
shrubs,  date  leaves,  and  the  leaves  and  branches  of  the  tamarisk  ; 
these,  when  it  meets  with  them,  together  with  dates,  beans,  and 
cakes  of  barley,  pounded  by  its  master,  constitute  its  supply  of 
food  during  the  toilsome  journey. 

Hence  we  see  the  utility  of  its  strong  incisors,  its  canine  teeth, 
and  its  canine-like  molars,  which  enable  it  to  browse  on  the  coarsest 
shrubs  with  ease  ;  while  its  long  prehensible  lip  serves  to  draw  the 
twigs  and  leaves  to  its  mouth,  or  to  hold  the  tuft  of  herbage  which 
is  undergoing  mastication. 

These  explanations  with  reference  to  the  camel  are  equally  applicable  to 
the  dromedary. 

523.  Why  are  tJie  toes  of  the  llama  separated  and  pointed  ? 

Because  the  llama  is  a  mountaineer,  cropping 
the  herbage  of  elevated  ranges,  but  having 
sometimes  in  its  wanderings  to  cross  barren 
and  heated  tracts. 

Its  foot,  therefore,  instead  of  having  the  toes 
bound  to  one  solid  oval  cushion,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  camel,  is  distinguished  by  having  the  toes  well  separated, 
each  one  being  provided  with  a  complete  pad. 

This  foot  is  remarkably  well-adapted  for  holding  on  upon  the 
rough  surfaces  of  precipices  ;  whilst  it  is  also  fitted  for  occasional 
use  upon  heated  and  barren  tracts. 

524.  Why   are   numerous    animals    of    the   order  ruminantia 
provided  with  variously-shaped  horns  ? 

It  is  obvious    that    these    organs    are,   with    all    tiie    tribes, 


176 


THE  REASON  WHY  : 


"  To  the  strong  ram 

Tie  fast  the  rash  offender.     See  at  first 

His  homed  companion,  fearful  and  amazed, 

Still  drag  him  trembling  o'er  the  rugged  ground.' 


weapons  of  defence:  but  that  explanation  does  not  puffice  fi» 
their  various  and  singular  shapes,  and  for  certain  circumstances 
connected  with  their  history.  In  the  deer  tribe,  for  instance 
horns  belong  only  to  the  male  in  most  of  the  species ;  ia 


the  rein-deer  the  female  is  furnished  also  with  horns,  but  they 
are  smaller  than  those  of  the  other  sex.  The  horns  are  composed 
of  a  bony  substance,  grow  periodically,  fall  off  annually,  and 
are  again  renewed  of  a  larger  size  than  in  the  preceding  yeac 
Their  forms  are  various  :  sometimes  they  spread  into  broad  palms, 
which  send  out  sharp  snags  around  their  outer  edges ;  sometime!! 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  IV  / 


"  That  very  portion  which  (by  faithful  skill 
Employ'd)  might  make  the  smiling  public  rear 
Her  ornamented  head." — THOMSON. 


they  divide  fantastically  into  branches,  some  of  which  project 
over  the  forehead,  whilst  others  are  reared  upwards  in  the  air  ; 
or  they  may  be  so  reclined  backwards  that  the  animal  seems 
almost  forced  to  carry  its  head  in  a  stiff,  erect  posture.  Yet,  in 
whatever  vay  they  grow,  they  appear  to  give  an  air  of  grandeur  to 
ths  animal 

It  may,  then,  speaking  in  general  terms,  be  said  that  the  easy 
elegance  of  their  form,  the  lightness  of  their  motions,  their  size, 
their  strength,  their  fleetness,  and  the  extraordinary  development 
of  those  branching  horns,  which  seem  fully  as  much  intended  for 
ornament  as  defence,  all  contribute  towards  placing  horned  Animals 
in  the  foremost  rank  of  quadrupeds. 


525.  Paley  remarks  upon  the  general  question  :  A  third  property  of  an'mal  foriu 
is  beauty.  I  do  not  mean  relative  beauty,  or  that  of  one  animal  above  aui-tLer  of 
the  same  species,  or  of  one  species  compared  with  another  of  the  same  species  ;  but 
I  mean,  generally,  the  provision  which  is  made  in  the  body  of  almost  every  animal 
to  adapt  its  appearance  to  the  perception  of  the  animals  with  which  it  converses. 
He  supports  this  hypothesis  by  an  example  • — The  irides  (colours)  of  the  eyes  of 
animals  are  very  beautiful,  without  conducing  at  all,  by  their  beauty,  to  the 
perfection  of  vision  ;  and  Nature  could  in  no  part  have  employed  her  pencil  to  so 
much  advantage,  because  no  part  presents  itself  so  conspicuously  to  the  observer, 
or  communicates  so  great  an  effect  to  the  whole  aspect. 

This  argument  seems  to  be  fully  borne  out  by  the  fact,  that  the  period  wh<?n  the 
deciduous  horns  arrive  at  perfection,  is  the  season  of  love  between  the  sexes. 
They  continue  in  the  male  until  the  season  of  pairing,  and  in  the  female  during  the 
whole  period  of  gestation ;  and  as  they  drop  off  in  both  as  soon  as  these  great 
labours  of  the  year  are  over,  it  is  evident  that  they  have  some  connection  witu 
the  sexual  system,  and  consequently  with  the  affections. 

But  in  point  of  utility  much  may  be  said.  The  horn  of  the  deer  tribe  diffVis 
materially  in  substance  *rom  the  horn  of  the  ox.  The  former  supplied  man  wLa 
some  of  his  earliest  an^  rudest  instruments  and  weapons,  and  in  the  present  days 
of  luxury  and  refinement  contribute  largely  to  ornamental  and  useful  manufactures, 
especially  that  of  knife-handles,  in  which  they  are  used  in  nearly  their  natural 
state.  The  horns  of  the  ox,  goat,  sheep,  &c  ,  are  largely  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  ccmbs,  boxes,  lanterns,  and  other  articles.  The  consumption  in  these  various 
nses  throughout  the  world  must  be  enormous.  We  see,  therefore,  ;^»  the  horn  of 
the  ruminant,  all  those  offices  combined  which  are  exhibited  in  other  remarkable 
productions  of  nature:  use  to  the  animal;  individuality  of  character  au/1 
appearance  ;  and  utility  to  man. 


178  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


Th«  stag,  too,  singled  from  the  herd,  where  long 
I1^  rang'd  the  branching  monarch  of  the  shades, 
Before  the  tempest  drives." — THOMSON. 


£28.  The  te~»>  horn  is  commonly  applied  to  any  hard  projecting  body  on  the  head 
of  animals,  revving  as  a  weapon  of  defence  ;  but  it  is  strictly  applicable  only  to  a 
certain  clat?  rt  such  weapons.  For  instance,  the  antlers  of  the  stag  consist  entirely 
of  bone,  aur1  Uave  no  right  to  the  denomination  "  horns  ;  "  the  weapons  of  the  ox,  the 
sheep,  anJ  the  antelope,  consist  of  a  sheath  of  true  horny  material  on  a  bony  core  ; 
while  th»  Vorns  of  the  rhinoceros  are  wholly  composed  of  horny  matter.  Bone  and 
horn  are  is  distinct  from  each  other,  as  both  are  from  ivory  ;  yet  the  three  are 
often  confounded  by  the  application  of  the  general  term  "  horn"  to  antlers,  tusks, 
and  true  Aorns.  Besides  the  horns  on  the  head  of  animals,  there  are  other  horny 
processes  in  the  hoofs,  claws,  nails,  &c.,  and  there  are  various  modifications  of  horn 
in  the  scales  of  the  armadillo,  the  plate  armour  of  the  tortoise,  the  spines  of  the 
p'>rc'j,mne  and  hedgehog,  and  the  quills  of  birds. 

TIoiii  consists  principally  of  membranous  animal  matter,  being1  a  compound  of 
coagulated  albumen,  gelatine,  and  a  small  portion  of  phosphate  of  lime.  It  has 
been  well  remarked  of  these  proportions,  "  had  the  horns  much  more  earth,  they 
would  be  brittle  like  bones  ;  had  they  much  more  gelatine,  they  would  be  soluble 
like  jelly  or  glue  ;"  as  it  is,  they  are  easily  convertable  to  the  purposes  of  the 
manufacturer,  by  whom  they  are  so  largely  used,  that  considerable  importations  of 
horns  are  necessary,  in  addition  to  the  supply  afforded  by  this  country. 

The  horns  chiefly  applied  to  manufacturing  uses  are  those  of  the  bull  and  cow, 
with  the  hoofs  of  those  animals.  Large  quantities  are  imported  from  Russia,  South 
America,  and  Southern  Africa.  The  horns  of  the  bison  and  buffalo  are  also  in 
demand,  the  latter  being  frequently  reserved,  on  account  of  their  beauty,  for 
superior  purposes.  The  horns  of  the  chamois  and  antelope  are  polished  and  used  in 
their  natural  forms.* 


527.  Why  does   a,   stag  prefer  to  reach   ivater  before  he  stands 
at  bay? 

Because,  from  his  greater  height,  he  can  maintain  a  footing, 
while  the  dogs,  obliged  to  swim,  become  comparatively  helpless. 
He  therefore  strikes  at  them  with  his  horns  with  great  effect, 
while  they  have  little  power  to  attack  him. 

528.  Wliy    are    the    horns    of    buffaloes     of    peculiar    utility 
to  them? 

Because  these  animals  feed  in  close  jungles,  where  their  eyes 
•  Tomlinson's    "  Encyclopaedia  of  Useful  Arts  and  Manufactures." 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


170 


"  In  time  the  savage  bull  doth  bear  the  yoke." — SHAKSPERH. 


are  of  comparatively  little  use  ;  and  though  the  ears  may  be 
of  service,  in  enabling  them  to  avoid  hostile  animals  and  find 
friendly  ones,  they  can  be  of  no  use  in  guiding  a  grazing  animal  to 
its  food.  Hence,  the  sense  upon  which  they  have  chiefly  to  depend 
for  their  subsistence  is  that  of  smell ;  and,  as  the  scent  of  their 
food  comes  in  the  air,  and  is  not  on  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
they  require  the  nose  elevated  while  they  are  ranging  the  jungles. 
In  doing  this,  the  horns  act  as  powerful  auxiliaries,  as  their 
weight  assists  in  balancing  the  weight  of  the  head  when  the  line 
of  the  face  is  carried  in  an  horizontal  position. 


529.  The  horns  of  buffaloes  are  of  use  to  them  in  another  way.    These  animals 

change  their  pastures  by  crossing 
rivers  which  flood  when  the  rain? 
fall  on  the  mountains,  and  whei. 
it  is  dry  there  they  run  low.  The 
animals  float  along  apparently  at 
their  ease,  till  they  arrive  at  those 
places  which  suit  their  habits. 
The  manner  in  which  they  carry 
their  heads  in  swimming  is  shown 
in  the  accompanying  engraving  ; 
from  which  it  is  obvious  that  they 
use  the  weight  of  their  horns  as  a 
lever  to  elevate  their  eyes  and 
nostrils. 


530.    Why  is   the  bison  able  to   use  his  horns  with  more  effect 
than  the  ox  ? 


Because  in  this  animal  the  horns  are  so  situated  that  when  its 
neck  is  brought  into  that  position  which  has  its  greatest  strength, 
the  horn  appears  on  the  anterior  and  lateral  part  of  the  convex 
skull  as  on  the  crown  of  an  arch,  and  the  axis  of  the  whole  body 
passes  between  the  two  horns,  and  parallel  to  the  direction  of  them,, 
so  that  the  animal  can  deliver  its  whole  momentum  from  a  rush  or 
bound  either  upon  both  horns,  or  upon  one  of  them,  with  full 
«ffect,  and  without  injury  to  itself. 


180  THE   REASON   WHY. 


While  doc  and  roe,  and  red  deer  good, 

Have  bounded  by  through  gay  greenwood. — SCOTT. 


531.  The  characters  of  the  bison,  which  chiefly  appear  in  the  head,  are  :  the  fore« 

head  arched  or  convex,  instead  of 
being  nearly  flat,  as  in  the  domestic 
ox ;  the  breadth,  measured  be 
tween  the  orbits  of  the  eyes, 
greater  than  the  height ;  the 
bases  of  the  horns  before  the 
ridge  of  the  occiput :  the  whole 
outlines  of  the  crania,  bines  more 
curved  or  convex  ;  the  occiput 
being  rounded  instead  of  quad 
rangular,  and  passing  into  the 
line  of  the  forehead  by  an  obtuse 
and  rounded  angle  instead  of  an 
acute  one.  This  form  gives  much 

greater  strength  to  the  skull,  and  more  firmness  to  the  bases  of  the  horns  ;  so  that 
the  bison  can  dash  the  head  with  much  move  impetus  than  the  ox,  either 
against  an  enemy  or  any  obstacle,  without  the  danger  of  equal  injury  either  from 
fracture  of  the  skull  or  concussion  of  its  contents. 


532.  How    are  the   structure   and   the   habits   of  the  rein-deer 
admirably  adapted  to  the  climate  which  it  inhabits  ? 

The  rein-deer  possesses  a  keen  scent  by  which  it  discovers  the 
lichens  on  which  it  feeds  deep  beneath  the  snow,  and  subsists 
easily  in  a  climate  where  the  face  of  nature  is  sealed  through  long- 
continued  months  of  winter.  As  a  beast  of  burthen  it  is  invaluable 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  dreary  northern  regions,  its  broad  expan 
sive  hoofs  enabling  it  to  pass  over  the  yielding  surface  of  snow 
with  ease.  For  domestic  purposes,  where  no  substitute  can  be 
found  to  meet  even  the  limited  wants  of  the  inhabitants,  its  import 
ance  is  incalculable  ;  its  milk  furnishes  them  with  cheese,  its  flesh 
with  meat,  its  hide  clothes  them,  and  its  horn  supplies  the 
material  for  implements  of  use. 

533.  In  what  manner    do   the  horns   of   the  rein-deer   prove 
instrumental  to  the  animal  in  procuring  its  food  ? 

By  the  aid  of  these  instruments  the  rein-deer  removes  the  deep 
tnow  from  the  ground,  and  thus  arrives  at  the  fopd  destined  for  its 


NATURAL      HISTORY.  181 


Tear-falling  pity  dwells  not  in  this  eye." — SHAKSPERK. 


subsistence.      The  velvety  down  which  covers  the  antlers  prevents 
the  snow  from  adhering  to  them. 

534.  Why  is  the  neck  of  the  elk  so  short,  and  the  head  so 
near  to  the  trunk  ? 

Because  the  weight  of  the  elk's  horns  is  enormous,  and  if  the 
head  and  horns  were  placed  at  the  extremity  of  an  elongated  neck, 
they  would  inevitably  overbalance,  the  body. 

535.  Why  are  stags  said  to  shed  tears  ? 

Such  allusions  are  very  frequent  with  the  poets.       Shakspere 

says  : — 

"the  big  round  tears 

Coursed  one  another  down  his  innocent  nose 
In  piteous  chase." 

The  eyes  of  the  stag,  and  nearly  all  the  deer  tribe,  display  a 
peculiarly  weeping  aspect.  It  depends  on  a  remarkable  glandular 
sinus,  or  tear-pit,  situate  at  the  inner  angle  of  each  eye,  close  to 
the  nose,  without  having  any  communication  with  the  eyes,  cr 
without  what  are  termed  the  lachrymal  passages. 

536.  Why  are  deer  furnished  with  supplementary  breathing 
places  in  addition  to  the  nostrils? 

This  would  appear  to  be  an  extraordinary  provision  ot  nature, 
providing  for  a  beast  of  the  chase  a  freer  respiration,  by  the 
opening  of  additional  nostrils  when  hard  run. 

Another  advantage  is  derived  from  this  peculiar  apparatus 
When  deer  are  thirsty,  they  plunge  their  noses  very  deep  undei 
water  while  in  the  act  of  drinking,  and  continue  them  in  that 
situation  for  a  considerable  time ;  but  to  obviate  any  inconvenience 
or  approach  to  suffocation  by  both  the  mouth  and  the  nostrils 
being  stopped  at  the  same  time,  these  two  vents  are  taken 
ad  vantage  of,  and  by  being  opened,  afford  the  necessary  supply 
of  air. 


182  THE    REASON    WHY  . 


"  While  in  this  park  I  sing,  the  list'iiing  deer 
Attend  my  passion,  and  forget  to  fear." — WALLER. 


They  are  composed  of  folds  of  the  skin,  and  are  capable  of  being 
opened  or  closed  at  the  pleasure  of  the  animal.  At  the  bottom 
they  are  furnished  with  a  gland,  which  secretes  an  oily  viscous 
substance,  of  the  colour  and  consistence  of  the  wax  of  the  ears, 
and  which  hardens  and  becomes  black  when  exposed  to  the  air. 
Each  sinus  acts  as  an  extra  breathing  place ;  the  moistened  moving 
edges  of  the  sinus  have  been  mistaken  for  tears. 

537.  Why  are  the  feet  of  the  rein-deer  deeply  fissured,  and  liable 
to  open  and  close  ? 

Because  the  deer  browses  upon 
lichens  or  mosses  which  it  finds  on 
the  mountains  of  Lapland  ;  it  has 
occasionally  to  walk  upon  deep  snows, 
and  at  other  times  upon  craggy 
mountainous  places.  The  spreading 
foot  is  efficacious  in  preventing  its  sinking  into  the  snow,  while  the 
firm  and  pointed  toes,  when  the  foot  is  closed,  serve  to  obtain 
a  Jinn  footing  upon  the  crags. 

538.  Why   is    the   ox   one   of  the    most   valuable   and   useful 
beasts  to  man  ? 

Because  it  not  only  affords  wholesome  and  agreeable  food  in 
this  country,  but  is  also  serviceable  as  a  beast  of  burden  and  of 
draught  in  many  lands  ;  and  in  some  is  commonly  employed 
for  riding. 

539.  The  readiness  of  acclimation  which  distinguishes  the  ox  in  every  part  of 
the  world,  and  in  almost  every  range  of  temperature,  is  one  of  the  most  obvious 
onuses  of  its  extensive  distribution  and  usefulness.  -In  the  northern  and  frozen 
parts  of  Europe,  and  under  a  tropical  sun,  the  ox  is  found  and  cherished,  and 
is  applied,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  to  the  many  purposes  of  utility.  The 
cow,  uuring  her  life,  provides  us,  in  her  copious  and  abundant  supply  of  milk, 
with  one  of  the  most  nutritive  and  wholesome  aliments.  Thus  useful  when  living, 
its  death  seems  to  render  it  even  more  extensively  serviceable.  The  flesh,  the 
various  portions  of  the  stomach,  and  the  viscera,  constitute  the  most  important 
articles  of  food ;  the  intestines  and  the  bladder  are  employed  for  different  uses  i» 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


Some  ruminating  lie  ;  while  others  stand 
Half  in  the  flood,  and,  often  bending,  sip 
The  circling  surface." — THOMSON. 


domestic  economy ;  the  horns  are  extensively  used  in  manufacturing  numerous 
articles  of  utility,  ornament,  and  amusement ;  the  ears  and  hoofs  furnish  the  im 
portant  article  of  glue  ;  the  bones  form  a  strong  manure,  or  are  carved  into 
various  implements,  and  are  thus  an  excellent  substitute  for  ivory  ;  or  they  yield  by 
decomposition  several  essential  articles  in  medicine,  domestic  economy,  and  the 
arts ;  the  hair  is  used  in  mortar ;  the  hide  is  tanned  into  leather ;  and,  in  fact,  there 
is  not  a  part  of  this  most  useful  animal  which  does  not,  living  or  dead,  contribute 
to  the  advantage  of  mankind. 

540.  Why  does  the  sight  of  blood,  or  anything  of  a  red  colour, 
excite  and  infuriate  the  ox  tribe  ? 

Because  red  is  the  complementary  colour  of  green  ;  and  the  eyes 
of  oxen  being  long  fixed  upon  the  green  herbage  while  feeding, 
when  they  espy  anything  red  it  impresses  their  sight  with  a 
greatly- increased  intensity. 

The  same  effect  is  doubtless  produced  upon  all  grazing 
animals  by  a  red  colour ;  but  oxen,  being  more  pugnacious 
than  others,  show  greater  excitement,  and  often  attack  that 
which  surprises  them. 

541.  Why    do    oxen   frequently   stand  in    shallow    waters    in 
hot  weather? 


Because,  having  the  power 
of  ruminating,  they  can 
take  in  a  store  of  food, 
and  by  retiring  to  shallow 
waters,  which  generally  lie 
in  shady  places,  they  ob 
tain  coolness,  and  escape  to 
a  great  extent  the  annoying 
bites  of  insects,  while  they 
contentedly  chew  the  cud. 
The  water  also  softens  and 
cools  their  hoofs,  and  pre 
vents  cracks  and  humours 
to  which  they  are  liable  iq 
hot  weather. 


184  THE    REASON    WHY  : 


One  way  a  band  select  from  forage  drives 
A  herd  'of  beeves,  faire  oxen  and  faire  kine 
From  a  fat  meddow  ground." — MILTON. 


542.  JFliy  do  oxen  use  a  peculiar  licking  motion  with  the 
tongue,  when  gathering  heritage  ? 

Because  their  upper  lip  is  not  prehensible,  like  that  of  the 
h :  rse.  They  therefore  use  the  tongue  to  gather  in  the  grass, 
which  is  afterwards  divided  by  biting. 

513.  Why  is  it  customary  to  hang  bells  around  the  necks  o/ 
cattle  in  Switzerland  ? 

Because,  as  they  are  allowed  to  roam  among  the  acclivities  and 
windings  of  the  mountains,  the  sound  of  the  bells  tends  to  keep 
them  together,  and  also  to  inform  the  vachers,  or  herdsmen,  of  their 
whereabouts.  The  bolls  vary  in  form  and  size,  from  a  small 
tinkling  instrument  to  a  large  deep-toned  bell,  worn  by  the  leader 
of  a  herd. 

544.  So  accustomed  and  attached  do  the  animals  become  to  these  bells,  that  the 
deprivation  of  them  is  felt  as  a  punishment.  The  cow,  whose  superior  beauty, 
sagacity,  and  good  conduct,  fit  her  to  be  the  leader  of  the  herd,  is  always  on 
gala-days  distinguished  by  the  largest  and  finest-toned  bell,  and  the  bravest 
ornamental  collar,  and  so  down,  through  all  the  gradations  of  good,  to  the  small 
appendage  that  marks  the  indifferently  good  eft:  clever  animal,  and  the  total  absence 
of  ornament  and  distinction  which  points  out  the  self-willed  or  vicious.  If  any  cow 
has  been  guilty  of  straying,  of  unseemly  behaviour,  breach  of  discipline,  or  any 
vicious  trick,  the  displeasure  of  the  vacher  is  not  testified  by  blows,  but  by  the  tem 
porary  deprivation  of  her  bell ;  and  this  seldom  fails  to  reduce  her  to  order  and 
prevent  a  repetition  of  the  offence.  It  is  only  necessary  to  see  the  cow  on  a  gala- 
day,  with  her  badge  of  distinction  strapped  round  her  neck,  and  then  to  see  her 
deprived  of  it,  for  some  fault  or  other,  to  be  convinced  that  this  is  true.  She  is 
now  gay,  good-humoured,  and  frolicsome,  and  then,  sulky  and  gloomy. 

A  certain  cow,  that  had  long  worn  the  bell  of  honoui  round  her  neck,  had  but 
recently  given  birth  to  a  calf,  and  was  considered  too  wc-ak  to  bear  the  weight  of  the 
large  bell,  or,  indeed,  of  either  one.  Her  master  turned  her  out  to  go  with  the  herd 
to  the  upland  pastures.  This  summer  removal  of  quarters  is  always  held  as  a 
holiday.  The  peasants  were  dressed  in  their  best  clothes,  the  cows  had  on  their 
bells,  and  all  went  on  gaily,  except  the  poor  matron  who  was  deprived  of  hers 
After  proceeding  a  few  paces,  she  began  to  show  signs  of  great  uneasiness  ;  this 
increased.  It  was  vainly  attempted  to  coax  her  forward,  and  soon  she  lay  down  on 
her  side,  and  would  not  move.  In  this  dilemma  one  of  the  old  vachers  came  up, 
aad  seeing  how  the  case  stood,  coolly  went  to  the  house,  and  brought  out  the  bell 
and  collar,  which  the  animal  no  sooner  felt  about  her  neck  than  she  rose,  sh^oh 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  185 

"  As  from  fresh  pastures  and  the  dewy  field 

(When  loaded  cribs  their  evening1  banquet  yield) 

The  lowing  herds  return  :  around  them  throng, 

"With  leaps  and  bounds,  their  late  imprisoned  young." — POPE. 

herself,  and  raising  and  throwing  her  tail  o*  er  her  haunches,  in  token  of  complete 
satisfaction,  went  off  prancing,  kicking,  ana  curvetting,  with  every  appearance  of 
heilth  and  gaiety  ;  and,  taking  her  place  in  the  van,  was  from  that  moment  as  well 
as  ever.* 

545.  Why   has    the    ox   (the   most  valuable  of  quadrupeds  to 
man)  been  so  easily  and  universally  domesticated  ? 

Because  of  its  gregarious  nature,  which  leads  it  readily  to 
associate  with  any  other  animal  that  evinces  no  disposition  to 
offer  it  direct  injury. 

546.  Why   has    the    ox,  in    common   with    other   ruminating 
animals,  a   divided  hoof? 

Because  feet  thus  furnished  take  a  firmer  hold  upon  soft, 
yielding,  or  irregularly  disposed  ground,  supporting  the  body 
better,  and  being  less  liable  to  injury  than  any  other  kind.  Feet 
thus  formed  also  do  less  injury  to  vegetation  than  would  result  from 
flat  solid  hoofs. 

547.  Why  has   the   cow,   which  usually  produces  but  one  calf, 
four  or  more  teats  ? 

Because  the  calf,  being  born  with  teeth,  and  requiring  a  large 
quantity  of  nourishment,  the  excess  in  the  number  of  teats  enables 
the  cow,  by  altering  her  position,  to  change  the  teat  used  by  her  young 
one,  and  thus  to  prevent  its  becoming  sore  by  continual  sucking. 

548.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  human  mothers  change  the  side  upon  which 
children  suck,  for  a  similar  reason.    When  a  child  is  very  hungry  and  tenacious  of 
the  breast,  soreness  is  prevented  by  thus  acting  ;  and  the  appearance  of  teeth  in  the 
gums  of  her  offspring  is  the  usual  indication  that  the  time  proper  for  weaning  is 
at  hand. 

In  dairy  economy,  there  is  great  advantage  in  the  number  of  teats,  because  one 
cow  may  be  made  to  suckle  two  calves  ;  the  second  cow  being  kept  for  milch. 

In  the  domesticated  state,  udders  and  teats  are  very  liable  to  become  disordered. 
As  the  udder  consists  of  four  distinct  glands,  each  having  a  teat,  the  inflammation 
arising  from  one  may  not  be  communicated  to  the  other,  which  can  be  milked  01 
Slicked,  and  the  mammary  system  relieved. 

*  Latrobe's  "  Alpenstock     or,  Sketches  of  Swiss  Scenery  and  Manners." 


1  86  THE    REASON   WHY  : 


"  Th'  ignoble  never  lived ;  they  walk  awhile 

Li.i3  swine,  or  other  cattle  here  on  earth  1 
Their  names  are  not  recorded  on  the  file 
Of  -ife,  that  fall  so."— B.  Jouxsox. 

For  the  purposes  of  the  calf,  the  division  of  the  udder  into  four  glands,  each 
having  a  teat,  the  advantage  is,  that  the  calf  can  always  he  supplied.  One  gland 
forming  milk,  while  another  is  heing  exhausted. 

549.  Why  do  wild  cattle,  ivhen  flying  from  tJie  hunter,  keep  to  the 
sides  of  fields  and  copses  ? 

Because  they  are  then  sheltered  on  one  side  from  attack, 
and  can  the  more  readily  take  to  the  cover  when  they  are 
sufficiently  a-head  of  their  pursuers,  or  when  a  good  "run" 
offers  an  opening, 

550.  Wliy  do  wild  cattle,  when  meditating  an  attack  upon  an 
enemy  —  especially    man  —  make    their    approaches  in    gradually 
diminishing  circles  ? 

Because,  in  all  probability  the  animal  intends,  previously  to 
attacking  its  foe,  to  intimidate  it  by  a  show  of  its  own  power  and 
means  of  injury  ;  calculating  that  the  obnoxious  object  will,  under 
the  influence  of  fear,  turn  and  present  its  most  vulnerable  side,  or 
retreat  altogether,  without  the  necessity  of  an  actual  combat 

551.  Many  animals  before  making  a  dart  at  an  enemy  paw  the  ground,  foam  at 
the  mouth,  lash  themselves  with  their  tail,  and  otherwise  excite  themselves  to  a 
seeming  anger.  All  these  acts  are  doubtless  intended  to  have  the  same  effect  as  the 
circuitous  approaches,  to  appal  the  enemy. 

552.  Wliy  is  the  hair  of  tame  and  domesticated  cattle  softer  and 
smoother  than  that  of  the  wild  varieties  ? 

On  account  of  the  protection  afforded  by  the  farmer  and  grazier 
against  the  severity  of  the  seasons,  as  also  from  the  more  regular 
and  choice  supply  of  food  which  domesticated  animals  receive. 

553.  There  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  texture  of  the  hair  of  the  highland 
cattle  and  those  bred  in  the  lowlands  of  Scotland  ;  and  even  the  same  breed  under 
different  circumstances  differs  in  this  respect.  On  their  native  pastures,  where  they 
are  not  housed,  they  are  extremely  rough,  shaggy,  and  wild-looking  ;  but  when 
driven  to  the  lowlands,  they  become  more  polished,  and,  on  a  richer  pasture  in  a 
warmer  climate,  and  with  shelter  at  night,  show  a  rich  and  glossy  covering:.* 

*  Naturalists'  Library. 


NATURAL  HISTORY:  18V 


"  If  milk  be  thy  design  :  with  plenteous  hand 
Bring  clover  grass ;  and  from  the  marshy  land 
Salt  herbage  for  the  foddering  rack  provide, 
To  fill  their  bags,  and  swell  the  milky  tide."— DRYDEN. 

554.  Why  are  horns  of  tame  cattle  generally  shorter  than  those 
of  wild  ? 

Because  these  appendages,  being  obviously  intended  for  weapons 
of  offence  and  defence,  their  development  naturally  followed  the 
ratio  of  their  necessity,  and  decreased  in  proportion  to  their 
domestication. 


5.55.  It  would  seem  that  while  domestication  softens  the  manners  of  animals,  it 
also  smooths  the  asperities  of  their  forms.  All  animals,  when  under  the  influence 
of  strong  and  angry  passion,  become  much  more  rugged  than  when  the)'  are  pleased, 
The  hair  stands  up,  the  muscles  swell  into  ridges,  the  skin  is  puckered,  and  the 
animal  puts  on  an  aspect  as  forbidding  as  possible.* 


556.  Why  do  wild  cattle  feed  in  flocks,  while  the  tame  varieties 
scatter  and  browse  separately  ? 

Because  the  former  experience  a  sense  of  insecurity  and  dread 
of  attack  ;  they  act  instinctively  upon  the  maxim  that  union  is 
strength,  and  thus  guard  against  surprise.  The  domesticated  ox 
has  no  such  dread,  and  follows  its  individual  caprice,  or  sense 
of  enjoyment. 

557.  TFTiy  has  the  giraffe   such  a  long  slender  neck  ? 

Because  it  browses  upon  the  branches  of  tall  trees,  for  which 
purpose  its  long  neck  is  admirably  adapted. 


558.  Why  has  the  giraffe  a  head  so  small  in  proportion 
to  its  size  ? 

Because  a  larger  head  at  the  extremity  of  the  lever  formed  by 
the  long  neck  would  possess  a  weight  disproportioned  to  the 
muscular  power  of  the  animal,  and  be  a  serious  encumbrance. 

*  Fartington's  "  Cyclopaedia." 


188 


THE   REASON    WHY  : 


Whose  heisrht  the  rising  forest  overlooks ; 

And  on  tree-tops  the  eye-sight  downward  casts; 
Where  distant  rivers  seem  bestrided  brooks." — DAVENANT. 


559.   Why    is 

tongue  ? 


the    giraffe    endowed    with    a    long   prehmsibk 


For  the  purpose  of  collect 
ing  together  the  tender  twigs 
and  leaves  upon  which  it 
feeds.  But  for  this  tongue, 
which  gathers  the  leaves  into 
large  bunches,  the  giraffe 
could  only  bite  the  single 
ends  of  the  sprays,  and  in 
this  way  could  obtain  only  a 
limited  supply  of  food. 


560.  A  giraffe  m0re  than  two-thirds  grown  will  eat  daily  in  confinement  eighteen 
pounds  of  clover,  hay,  and  eighteen  pounds  of  a  mixed  vegetable  diet,  consisting  of 
carrots,  mangold-wur/el,  barley,  split  beans,  and  onions;  and  will  drink  four 
gallons  of  water. 


561.    \VTiy   is    the    head    of   the   giraffe  surmounted   by    short 
erect  horns  ? 


These  horns  are  occasionally  used  as  weapons  of  defence.  We 
have  seen  them  wielded  by  the  males  against  each  other  with 
fearful  and  reckless  force ;  and  they  are  much  dreaded  by 
the  keeper  of  the  present  living  giraffes  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens,  because  they  are  sometimes  very  suddenly  put 
into  use. 

The  giraffe  does  not  butt  by  depressing  and  suddenly  elevating 
the  head,  like  the  deer,  ox,  or  sheep,  but  strikes  the  callous 
obtuse  extremity  of  the  horns  against  the  object  of  his  attack  with 
•  sidelong  sweep  of  the  neck.  The  female  in  the  gardens  of  tha 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


189 


*'  The  elephant  with  pond'rous  tread, 

The  giraffe  with  exalted  head." — NEWMAN. 


Zoological    Society    once     drove    her    horns     through    an    inch 
board.* 

562.  There  is  another  use  which  may  be  assigned  to  the  horns.  Surrounded  as 
they  are  with  a  thick  tuft  of  hair,  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  they  are  used  as 
instruments  of  feeling.  The  ox  looks  down  upon  the  pasture  ;  but  with  the  giraffe, 
the  order  is  inverted,  its  food  being  over  and  around  its  head.  As  the  giraffe 
carries  its  head  beneath  and  through  the  branches  of  the  trees,  the  long  hairs  upon 
the  erect  horns  come  in  contact  with  the  leaves  above  them,  and  the  animal,  without 
a  constant  effort  to  look  up — in  fact,  with  its  eyes  turned  downward  and  backward, 
to  guard  against  enemies,  is  able  to  apprehend  its  food.  Buffaloes,  oxen,  deer,  &c., 
have  similar  hairs  upon  their  nostrils  ;  the  giraffe  is  provided  with  them  also  upon 
the  points  of  its  horns. 

563.  Why    are    the   nostrils    of  the   giraffe  thickly  intersectti 
with  stiff  hairs  ? 

Because,  while  it  browses  among  the  branches  of  trees,  it  dis 
turbs  a  great  number  of  insects,  whose  attacks  would  cause  great 
annoyance  without  this  defence.  For  the  same  protective  purpose, 
the  eyes  are  surrounded  with  unusually  large  eyelashes,  and  also 
provided  with  a  third  or  nictating  membrane,  which  sweeps  all 
foreign  matters  from  their  surface. 

564.  Wlnj  are  the  eyes   of  the  giraffe  set  prominently  near  the 
back  of  the  head  ? 

In  that  situation  they  are  best  adapted  to  keep  watch  against 

enemies,  which  usually  spring 
from  behind.  The  chief  de 
fence  of  the  giraffe  lies  in  that 
direction  ;  from  the  vigour  of  its 
muscles,  the  length  of  its  legs, 
and  the  consequent  velocity  of 
the  hoof,  when  it  conies  to  the 
position  in  which  it  can  take 
effect,  the  kick  is  truly  a  for 
midable  one,  and  is  said  to  b« 
sufficient  to  break  the  skull  of 
a  lion. 

Maunder'B  "  Natural  History." 


190  THE  REASON    WHY  : 


"  A  herd  of  goafs,  each  shining  morn, 
Midst  scraggy  myrtle,  pointed  thorn, 
Quick  glancing,  to  the  sun  display'd 
Their  spotted  sides,  and  pierced  the  shade." — WHITEHEAD. 

565.  Why  does  the  lion  generally  attack  the  giraffe  while  the 
latter  is  drinking  ? 

Because  at  such  times,  the  head  being  depressed,  the  giraffe 
caiinot  see  the  approach  of  an  enemy ;  and  its  fore-legs  being 
widely  spread,  so  that  its  head  may  reach  the  water,  the  animal  is 
then  in  a  very  helpless  position. 

566.  The  lion  lies  in  wait,  usually  in  the  morning,  at  some  place  near  a  stream, 
and  in  a  situation  somewhat  elevated  over  its  intended  prey.  There  the  lion 
waits  in  concealment  the  approach  of  his  intended  victim.  As  soon  as  th< 
giraffe  puts  down  its  head  to  drink,  all  the  advantage  which  its  prominent  eye  givet, 
it  when  the  neck  is  elevated  is  gone.  In  this  situation  the  lion  springs,  and  fastens 
upon  its  back  ;  and  although  the  giraffe  bounds  off  with  terrific  speed,  the  weight  o  \ 
the  lion,  and  the  pain  of  laceration,  bring  him  to  the  ground. 

567.  Why    is   it   imagined    that    goats,    kept    in  stables   with 
horses,  improve  the  health  of  the  latter  ? 

This  is  one  of  those  popular  fancies  which,  seemingly  absurd 
at  first,  are  found  upon  reflection  to  have  some  foundation.  All 
animals  are  kf.pt  in  better  temper  and  greater  cheerfulness  by  the 
presence  of  a  companion,  than  in  solitude  ;  and  the  active  and 
good-humoured  goat  may,  in  this  way,  really  perform  the  benefit 
which  has  been  attributed  to  it  upon  mistaken  grounds.* 

568.  Why  can  goats  subsist  upon  vegetables    that  are   noxious, 
or  even  poisonous,  to  other  animals  ? 

This  is  probably  a  part  of  the  great  creative  scheme,  to  provide 
for  the  comsumption,  and  the  keeping  within  necessary  limits,  those 
species  of  vegetables  which  having  their  special  utilities,  would 
acquire  an  undue  preponderance  if  not  kept  in  check. 

569.  In  feeding,  goats  are  very  indiscriminate,  and  many  plants  which  are  not  only 
shunned  by  other  ruminating  animals,  but  act  as  poison  to  them,  are  not  only  eaten 
with  impunity,  but  relished  by  them.  There  have  been  instances  in  which  tame 
goats  have  chewed  tobacco ;  and,  in  the  wild  state,  they  eat  the  most  bitter  and 
Aarcotio  plants,  such  as  euphorbium,  hemlock,  henbane,  and  e\en  digitalie,  without 

•  Bell's  "  British  Quadrupeds  H 


SATURAL   HISTORY.  191 


"  That  shrcp-cot,  which  in  }"ondcr  vale  you  see 
(Beset  with  groves,  and  those  sweet  springs  hard  by), 
I  rather  would  my  palace  wish  to  be 
Than  any  roof  of  proudest  majesty." — DANIET>. 

laffering  any  injury.  Few  plants  are  more  disrelished  by  cattle  than  the  com 
mon  ragweed,  and  therefore  the  pastures  on  those  lands  in  upland  and  humid 
situations  are  very  much  infested  by  it ;  but  goats  clear  it  off,  if  allowed  to  browse  the 
plants  before  they  come  into  flower.  There  are  many  of  the  composite?  which  arc  the 
pests  of  our  pastures,  and  which  are,  generally  speaking,  biennials,  making  roots  the 
first  year,  and  bearing  flowers  the  next,  which  might  probably  be  cleared  off  by 
pasturing  with  goats  at  proper  times.  The  alternation  with  each  other  of  animals, 
one  set  of  which  can  eat  the  plants  that  are  disliked  by  another,  is  an  important 
point  in  the  economy  of  our  grazing  districts,  though  it  does  not  appear  to  hare 
Tereived  that  attention  to  which  it  is  entitled.* 

570.    Why   do   sheep    make   a   nodding  motion   of   the    head 

when  feeding  ? 

This  motion  is  owing  to  the  peculiar  formation  of  the  jaw 
and  the  teeth.  Sheep  have  no  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  but  the 
bars  or  the  ridges  of  the  palate  thicken  as  they  approach  the  fore 
part  of  the  mouth  ;  there  is  also  the  dense,  fibrous,  elastic  matter 
of  which  they  are  constructed,  which  becomes  condensed,  and 
forms  a  cushion  or  bed  that  covers  the  convex  extremity  of  the 
upper  jaw,  and  occupies  the  place  of  the  upper  incisor  or  cutting 
teeth,  and  partly  discharges  their  functions.  The  herbage  is 
firmly  held  between  the  front  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  and  this  pad, 
and  is  brought  away  by  a  half  biting,  half  tearing  action,  which 
occasions  the  peculiar  motion  of  the  head  alluded  to. 

571.  The  stalks  of  the  common  herbage  of  the  field,  bitten  closely  as  they 
are  by  sheep,  are  harder  and  more  fibrous  than  the  portions  that  are  divided 
and  chopped  by  c  itfle :  and  not  only  so,  but  some  breeds  of  sheep  are  destined  to 
iive,  iu  part  at  least,  on  harder  food  than  falls  to  the  lot  of  cattle — as  the  different 
kinds  of  heath,  or  substances  almost  as  difficult  to  be  broken  off  as  the  branches 
of  heath.  The  incisor  teeth  are  evidently  formed  for  browsing  on  these  tough 
productions  of  the  soil,  which  would  otherwise  be  altogether  useless  and  lost.  The 
part  of  the  tooth  above  the  gum  is  not  only,  as  in  other  animals,  covered  with 
enamel  to  enable  it  to  bear  and  to  preserve  a  sharpened  edge,  but  the  enamel  on  the 
upper  part  rises  from  the  bone  of  the  tooth  nearly  a  quarter  of  an  inch  ;  and,  pre 
senting  a  convex  surface  oatwards,  and  a  concaTe  one  within,  forms  a  little  scoop  er 
youge,  capable  of  wonderful  execution.  He  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  compare 
the  incisor  teeth  of  cattle  and  of  sheep — both  ruminants — both  by  means  of  the 
hall  cutting  and  half  tearing  action,  having  the  stomach,  in  which  the  process 

•  Partington's  "  Cyclopjedia  ' 


THE    REASON    WHY. 


"  First,  with  assiduous  care,  from  winter  keep 
Well  foddered  in  the  stalls,  thy  tender  sheep; 
Then  spread  with  straw  the  bedding  of  thy  fold ; 
With  fern  beneath,  to  fend  the  bitter  cold." — DRYDKN. 


of  maceration  is  going  forward,  abundantly  supplied  with  absorbent  or  alkaline 
earth— the  one,  however,  destined  to  crop  little  more  than  the  summit  of  'he  grass, 
and  the  other  to  go  almost  close  to  the  roots,  and  occasionally  to  browse  on  harder 
food— will  have  an  interesting  illustration  of  the  manner  in  which  every  part 
of  every  animal  is  adapted  to  the  situation  in  which  he  is  placed,  and  the  destiny  he 
has  to  fulfil.  The  pad,  also,  is  firmer  and  denser  than  in  cattle,  yet  sufficiently 
elastic,  so  that  it  is  in  no  danger  of  injury  from  the  sharp  chisels  below,  while  the 
interposed  substance  is  cut  through  with  the  greatest  ease. 

572.  Why  will  sheep    follow    each    other    even    into    evident 
danger  ? 

For  two  reasons.  From  the  strength  of  their  social  instinct, 
which  leads  them  to  move  together  in  flocks,  and  seldom  if  ever 
singly,  or  in  an  isolated  manner.  Secondly,  there  is  no  animal 
in  which  the  faculty  of  iznitation  of  the  movements  of  their  own 
species  is  so  strong  as  in  sheep. 

573.  These  instincts  appear  to  have  been  wisely  implanted  in  one  of  the  most 
valuable  and  defenceless  of  domesticated  animals,  in  order  that  they  might  be 
taken  advantage  of  by  the  intelligence  of  man. 

The  leaders  of  the  flock  having  been  instructed  and  rendered  manageable,  t he 
obedience  of  the  rest  is  secured.  Every  one  has  seen  an  illustration  of  this,  where 
a  butcher  has  succeeded  in  housing  a  large  number  of  sheep  by  simply  dragging  in 
01  e  of  them.  So  great  is  their  dislike  of  solitude,  that  if  an  individual  is  thus  kept, 
it  pines  and  very  soon  dies. 

574.  Why  is  the  upper  lip  of  the  sheep  divided? 

Because  it  is  thereby  enabled  to  bite  the  herbage  at  a  point 
nearer  to  the  roots  than  it  otherwise  would. 

The  sheep  bites  closer  than  the  ox,  and  is  enabled  to  follow  the 
latter,  and  to  procure  a  sufficient  sustenance  where  the  latter 
would  starve.  Two  purposes  are  answered  by  this  :  all  the 
nutriment  that  the  land  produces  is  gathered  from  it,  and  the 
pasture  is  made  to  produce  more  herbage  than  by  any  other 
means.* 

575.  Wliy  is   there    less  difference  between   wild  and  cultivated 
sheep  than  between  wild  and  tame  cattle  of  the  ox  kind  ? 

Because   sheep,    however    highly   cultivated,    seldom    or    eve? 

•  For  very  manv  interesting  questions  respecting  the  economy  of  sheep,  ottttla 
&o.,  see  "The  Reason  Why:  Gardening  and  Farming." 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  193 


*'  To  his  woundes  worken,  that  with  louely  dart 
Dinting  his  breast  had  bred  his  restlesse  paine, 
Like  as  tke  wounded  whale  to  shore  flies  from  the  maine." — SPEXSER. 


become  thoroughly  tame,  and  are  consequently  less  amenable  to 
the  laws  which  accompany  domestication. 

576.  Sheep,  however  domesticated,  never  evince  any  attachment  *o  their  keepers. 
When  food  is  presented  tr  them  they  come  to  that,  hut  do  not  heed  the  person  who 
is  in  the  habit  of  feeding  them  unless  the  food  is  shown.  They  require  the  care  of 
a  shepherd  to  conduct  them,  and  lead  the  flock  to  where  it  may  be  wanted ;  for, 
although  they  keep  together,  the  whole  would  wander  off,  and  never  return  to  the 
fold,  unless  conducted. 

ORDER  X.— CETACEA. 

577.  Why  is  the  order  Cetacea  so  named  ? 

From  the  Greek  word  ketos,  and  latin  cete,  signifying  a  whale. 
The  cetaceous  animals  include  the  genera  Monodon  (one  tooth), 
of  wkich  the  narwhal  is  an  example  ;  Balcena,  or  whalebone  whale  ; 
Physeter,  or  spermaceti  whale  and  Delphinus,  or  dolphins,  which 
include  the  porpoise  and  grampus. 

578.  They  have  no  gills,  but  are  furnished  with  an  aperture  for  respiration  on  the 
top  of  the  head  ;  and  they  have  a  flat  or  horizontal  tail.    Their  habits  are  in  general 
predacious,  that  is,  they  subsist  by  preying  upon  other  animals.    The  whale  tribe, 
however,  has  been  broadly  divided  into  herbivorous  and  carnivorous  cetacea.    The 
teeth  of  the  herbivorous  whales  have  a  flat  crown  which  determines  their  character. 
These  accordingly  often  leave  the  water  to  creep  and  feed  upon  the  land,  and  are 
without  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the  carnivorous  cetaeea,  namely,  the  singular 
apparatus  by  which  they  cast  up  jets  of  water. 

579.  Why  has  the  order  of  Cetacea,  been  separated  from  the 
classification  of  fishes  ? 

Because,  although  their  outward  shape  bears  considerable 
resemblance  to  the  fish  tribe,  their  anatomical  conformation, 
joined  with  various  other  characteristics,  proclaim  them  to  be  true 
aquatic  mammalia. 

580.  frae  fishes  breathe  by  means  of  gills,  in  which  the  blood  is  sufficient!/  acted 
on  by  the  air  that  is  contained  in  the  water  around  them  :  on  the  other  hand,  tho 
breathe  b^  means  of  lunys,  which  require  to  b*j  filled  with  air  from  thfl 
9 


1 94  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  And  one  of  them  I  saw  myselfe  sunke  downright  with  the 
abundance  of  water  that  this  monstrous  fish  spouted,  and  filled 
it  withall."— HOLLAND. 


iimosphere  ;  so  that  these  animals  are  obliged  to  come  occasionally  to  the  surface 
to  breathe.  Thus  the  function  of  respiration  is  conducted  on  a  plan  entirely 
different  in  these  two  groups. 

Again,  the  heart  of  the  fish  has  only  two  cavities,  and  the  blood  does  not  return  to 
it  after  passing  through  the  gills,  but  is  immediately  distributed  to  the  body  ;  whilst 
the  heart  of  the  whale  has  four  cavities,  and  the  blood  returns  to  it  after  passing 
through  the  lungs.  Hence,  the  plan  of  circulation  also  is  entirely  different  in  the 
two  classes — being  single  in  the  one  and  double  in  the  other. 

Again,  the  blood  of  the  fishes  is  cold,  and  that  of  the  whale  is  warm  ;  another 
character  of  great  importance,  in  regard  to  the  relative  activity  of  the  vital  opera 
tions  in  general,  in  these  two  classes  respectively. 

Further,  fishes  are  oviparous,  propagating  by  eggs,  from  which  the  young  come 
forth  in  due  time,  with  little  or  no  attention  on  the  part  of  the  parent ;  whilst 
whales  are  vivaporous,  producing  their  young  alive,  and  nourishing  them  afterwards 
by  suckling,  precisely  as  other  mammalia. 

581.  By   what    means  is   the   whale   enabled   to   eject  water  in 
the  form  of  a  spout  ? 

The  apparatus  by  which  this  is  accomplished,  consists  of  two 
pouches  or  reservoirs,  situated  beneath  the  nostrils,  and  communi 
cating  with  the  back  of  the  mouth  by  the  usual  nasal  passage, 
which  is  furnished  with  a  valve. 

When  the  animal  wishes  to  eject  water  contained  in  its  mouth, 
it  moves  its  tongue  and  jaws  as  if  about  to  swallow  the  fluid  ;  but 
by  closing  the  pharynx,  it  compels  the  water  to  ascend  through  the 
nasal  passage,  the  valve  of  which  it  forces  open,  and  also  distends 
the  reservoirs.  There  it  may  be  retained  until  the  animal  wishes 
to  eject  it  ;  and  this  is  effected  by  a  forcible  compression  of  the 
pouches,  which  compels  the  water  to  escape  by  the  nostrils ;  its 
return  to  the  mouth  being  prevented  by  the  valve  just  mentioned. 

582.  What  provision  have  whales  for   the  retention    of    their 
internal  heat  ? 

The  whale  tribes  have  smooth  and  polished  skins,  which  do  not 
readily  throw  off  the  heat ;  underneath  these,  there  is  a  large 
deposition  of  oily  fat,  which  is  a  very  bad  conductor  of  caloric. 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  195 


"  And  as  he  pranced  before,  still  seeking  for  a  snake, 

As  who  would  say,  '  There  is  none  here,  I  trow,  will  me  forsake ' ; 

I  might  perceive  a  wolf,  as  white  as  whales-bone." — SURREY. 


583.  Why  is  the  enormous  size  of  its  head  no  impediment  to 
rapid  locomotion  ? 

Because,  being  very  light  in  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  body, 
it  serves  rather  to  buoy  up  the  animal,  and  to  act  in  the  nature  of 
a  balloon  upon  the  vast  mass  with  which  it  is  connected. 

584.  In  the  spermaceti  whale  the  great  part  of  this  bulk  is  made  up  of  a  large,  thin 
membranous  case,  containing  during  life  a  thin  oil,  of  much  less  specific  gravity  than 
water,  below  which,  again,  is  the  substance  called  the  "junk,"  which,  although 
heavier  than  the  spermaceti,  is  still  lighter  than  the  element  in  which  the  whale  mo  veth. 
Consequently,  the  head,  taken  as  a  whole,  is  lighter  specifically  than  any  other  part  of 
the  body,  and  will  alwa.ys  have  a  tendency  to  rise,  at  least  so  far  above  as  to  elevate 
the  nostril,  or  "  blow-hole,"  sufficiently  for  all  purposes  of  respiration  ;  and,  more 
than  this,  a  very  slight  effort  on  the  part  of  the  fish  only  would  be  necessary  to 
raise  the  whole  of  the  anterior  flat  surface  of  the  nose  out  of  the  water.  In  case 
the  animal  shov.ld  wish  to  increase  its  speed  to  the  utmost,  the  narrow  inferior 
surface  of  the  head,  which  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  cutwater  of  a  ship,  and 
answers  the  same  purpose  to  the  whale,  would  be  the  only  part  exposed  to  the 
pressure  of  the  water  in  front.  Thus,  he  would  be  able  to  pass  with  the  greatest 
celerity  and  ease  through  the  boundless  tracks  of  his  wide  domain. 

585.  Wiat  is  whalebone? 

The  substance  known  under  this  name,  sometimes  called  baleen, 
is  found  in  the  monstrous  mouth  of  the  Balcena  mysticetus,  or 
whalebone  whale,  where  it  forms  the  substitute  for  teeth,  of  which 
otherwise  the  animal  is  destitute. 

586.  The  whalebone  depends  vertically,  or  nearly  so,  from  the  palate  like  a  port 
cullis  ;  is  rather  elastic  ;  and  its  lower  points  are  received  by  the  tongue  and  lower 
gums.    Its  function  is  to  act  like  a  sieve  or  strainer,  or  perhaps  in  the  nature  of  a 
mill,  reducing  the  food  which  flows  into  the  open  mouth  of  the  whale  to  a  state 
proper  for  digestion.    It  consists  of  an  immense  number  of  fibres  slightly  soldered 
together,    and    covered    with   an    epidermis    (cuticle  or  skin).     The    maxillary 
(jaw)  and  palatial  (palate)  bones  of  the  whalebone  whales  form  on  their  interior 
surface  two  inclined  planes,  which  are  concave,  but  resemble  slightly  the  roof  of  a 
house  inverted.    It  is  to  these  bones  that  the  blades  or  plates  of  whalebone  are 
attached.    They  are  widest  at  a  point  of  the  mouth  which  is  nearer  to  the  bottom  of 
the  gape  than  to  the  snout;  and  they  diminish  in  size   as  they  approach  both 
extremities.    They  are  attached  to  the  bone  by  an  elastic  cartilaginous  substance. 
The  plates  of  the  whalebone  move  upon  these  elastic  hinges.    When  the  mouth  ia 
shut,  these  blades  lie  or>f  over  the  other  like  the  folds  of  a  fan,  or  the  leaves  in 
flower -bud. 


196  THE    REASON   WHY: 


'Pampered  with  meats  full,  spermacetic,  and  fat." — DRAYTOW. 


Whalebone  forms  one  of  the  objects  of  the  Greenland  whale  fishery,  but  it  is 
not  the  chief.  The  principal  reward  arising  from  the  perilous  employment  of  so 
many  men  and  ships  is  to  be  found  in  the  large  quantities  of  oil  which  are  obtained 
from  the  thick  cutaneous  layer  of  fat,  or  blubber,  as  it  is  usually  termed.  A  whale 
sixty  feet  in  length  will  frequently  yield  more  than  twenty  tons  of  pure  oil ;  and 
pome  of  the  pieces  of  baleen  are  twelve  feet  long.  It  is  for  these  prizes  that  men 
willingly  expose  themselves  to  the  rigour  of  an  arctic  winter,  the  chance  of  falling 
victims  to  the  united  effects  of  cold  and  hunger,  or  shipwreck  in  its  most  horrid 
form,  occasioned  by  the  irresistible  crush  of  icebergs ;  and  should  the  hardy 
mariner  escape  from  dangers  such  as  these,  the  harpooner  not  unfrequently  perishes 
from  the  upsetting  of  the  boat,  owing  to  the  violent  plunges  which  the  wounded 
animal  makes  in  the  water,  or  the  whirlpool  produced  by  his  rapidly  rushing 
down  into  the  deep.* 

587.   What  is  spermaceti  ? 

It  is  a  substance  which  concretes  and  crystallizes  spontaneously 
out  of  the  oil  of  the  spermaceti  whale.  It  forms  a  very  pure  oil 
for  lamps,  and  is  used  in  various  ways  in  the  arts  and  medicine. 

588.  In  the  right  side  of  the  nose  and  head  of  the  cachalot  or  spermaceti  whale,  is 
a  large,  almost  triangular-shaped  cavity,  called  by  whalers  the  "case,"  which  is 
lined  with  a  beautifully  glistening  membrane,  and  covered  by  a  thick  layer  of 
muscular  fibres  and  small  tendons  running  in  various  directions,  and,  finally,  by  the 
common  integuments.  This  cavity  is  for  the  purpose  of  secreting  and  containing 
the  spermaceti.  The  si/e  of  the  case  may  be  estimated,  when  it  is  stated  that  in  a 
large  whale  it  not  unfrequently  contains  upwards  of  a  ton,  or  more  than  ten  large 
barrels  of  oil. 

The  pursuit  of  the  sperm  whale  is  accompanied  with  great  danger.  "  In 
calm  weather,  great  difficulty  is  sometimes  experienced  in  approaching  the  whale, 
on  account  of  the  quickness  of  his  sight  and  hearing.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  fishers  have  recourse  to  paddles  instead  of  oars,  and  by  this  means  can  quietly 
get  near  enough  to  make  use  of  the  harpoon.  When  first  struck,  the  whale 
generally  '  sounds,'  or  descends  perpendicularly  to  an  amazing  depth,  taking  out, 
perhaps,  the  lines  belonging  to  four  boats,  800  fathoms!  Afterwards,  when 
weakened  with  loss  of  blood  and  fatigue,  he  becomes  unable  to  sound,  but  passes 
rapidly  along  the  surface,  towing  after  him  perhaps  three  or  four  boats.  If  ho 
does  not  turn,  the  men  in  the  boats  draw  in  the  line  by  which  they  are  attached  to 
the  whale,  and  thus  easily  come  up  with  him,  even  when  going  with  great  velocity; 
be  is  then  lanced,  and  soon  killed." 


Maucder's  "Treasury.* 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  197 


"  An  Antony  it  was, 

That  grew  the  more  by  reaping  :  his  delights 
Were  dolphin-like ;  they  show'd  his  back  above 
The  element  they  lived  in." — SPENSER. 


589.  Why  has  the  shape  of  the  dolphin  been  frequently 
and  fancifully  misrepresented  ? 

From  two  probable  causes.  1.  The  principal  action  of  cetaceous 
animals  is  the  vertical  plane,  or  upwards  and  downwards,  while 
that  of  the  true  fishes  is  in  the  horizontal.  The  dolphin  ir  also  a 
very  sportive  animal,  sometimes  leaping  entirely  out  of  the  water. 

2.  The  spouting  of  dolphins,  in  common  with  other  cetacea,  lent 
itself  naturally  to  the  artistic  mind  in  the  construction  and 
adornment  of  ornamental  fountains ;  and  once  in  the  hands  of 
the  sculptor,  the  true  form  of  the  animal  was  soon  lost. 

590.  The  eye  of  a  casual  observer  is.  however,  apt  to  be  deceived  in  witnessing 
these  leaps,  and  the  spectator  imagines  the  back  of  a  dolphin  to  be  greatly  curved, 
while  it  is  almost  straight.  The  cause  of  this  deception  is  in  the  eye  following  the 
general  curve  in  which  the  average  mass  of  the  body  is  carried  during  the  leap  ; 
and,  as  the  real  shape  is  not  very  well  seen  while  the  animal  is  in  motion,  it  ia 
readily,  and  indeed  necessarily,  associated  with  this  curve.* 

591.  WJiy  does  the  dolphin  utter  a  sound  somewhat  resembling 
the  human  voice  ? 

Because  it  has  lungs,  and  an  air-tube  leading  to  them.  The 
dolphin  cannot  exist  long  in  the  water  without  coming  frequently 
to  the  surface  to  exhale  and  inhale  air  ;  and  jt  is  in  the  performance 
of  this  act  that  the  sound  is  occasioned. 

502.  No  animal  but  man  has  the  faculty  of  articulate  speech ;  which  consists  of 
vowels  pronounced  by  means  of  the  larynx,  and  of  consonants  formed  by  the 
tongue  and  the  lips.  The  dolphin  having  no  lips,  and  with  a  tongue  not  readily 
moveable,  cannot  therefore  articulate. 

593.   Why  is  the  porpoise  said  to  (l  roll "  / 

Because  its  mode  of  progression,  in  common  with  the  other 
cetacea,  when  near  the  surface  of  the  water,  consists  of  a  series  of 
leaps,  its  body  appearing  and  disappearing  at  intervals  with  a 
wheel,  or  barrel-like  .motion. 

•  Partington's  "  Cyclopaedia  " 


THE    REASON    WHY: 


•With  such  accoutrements,  with  such  a  form, 
Much  like  a  porpoise,  just  before  a  storm." — CHUKCHILL. 


594.  This  is  th  3  mode  of  swimming  in  all  the  whale  tribe  ;  and  it  is  easy  to  see, 
from  the  formation  of  the  tail,  the  most  powerful  organ  of  motion  they  possess,  this 
must  be  the  case.  Their  action,  like  that  of  land  mammalia,  is  vertical,  as  distin 
guished  from  the  horizontal  one  of  fishes.  Their  tails  strike  upward  and  down 
ward,  and  those  of  fishes  laterally.  The  resistance  to  the  stroke  upwards  is  less 
than  the  stroke  downwards,  because  the  pressure  of  the  water  increases  with  its 
depth  :  and  thus,  when  cetaceous  animals  make  great  exertions  in  swimming,  they 
always  have  a  tendency  to  "  roll." 

595.  Wliy  is  the  porpoise  (or  porcpesse)  so  named  ? 

The  name,  signifying  sea-hog,  was  given  to  this  animal  from  a 
fancied  resemblance  to  the  hog  in  the  character  of  its  head,  and  in 
its  habits  of  rooting  for  food. 

596.  Why  is  its  appearance  at  sea  in  numerous  packs  thought 
by  mariners  to  forewarn  a  storm  ? 

Because  it  has  been  frequently  found  that  previous  to  rough 
weather,  when  few  sea  animals  can  procure  food,  an  instinct  has 
led  porpoises  to  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity  afforded  by  the 
calm,  and  so  to  provide  for  a  period  of  deprivation. 

597.  Why  have  whales,  dolphins,  &c.,  the  flat  surface  of  their 
tails  placed  horizontally,  instead  of  vertically  ? 

This  difference  to  the  ordinary  fishes  is  to  favour  the  important 
function  of  respiration  ;  for  these  inhabitants  of  the  sea  must  rise 
to  the  surface  to  breathe  the  air,  and  their  tails  are  thus  directed 
to  enable  them  to  elevate  their  heads  above  water. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

598.   Why    is    the   omnivorous  character   of  man  beneficial  to 
the  lower  terrestrial  creation  ? 

Because,  by  his  appetite  for  various  kinds  of  flesh,  he  is  incited 
to  subdue  and  utilize  every  kind  of  animal  substance.     This  tenda 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  199 


For  forms  are  variable,  and  decay 

By  course  of  kinde,  and  by  occasion."— SPENSER. 


to  prevent  the  redundancy  of  species ;  and  equally  prevents  their 
total  extinction,  which,  on  account  of  the  unlimited  powers  of 
destruction  which  man  possesses,  would  sometimes  occur,  were 
his  choice  more  restricted. 

From  a  love  of  vegetable  food,  man  is  led  to  cultivate  and  render 
the  productions  of  tha  soil  abundant  and  wholesome  ;  and,  in  like 
manner  to  the  operation  of  his  appetite  upon  animal  productions, 
he  is  impelled,  by  his  love  of  variety,  to  cultivate  every  kind  of 
herb,  shrub,  and  tree. 

599.  The  instinct  of  hunting — if  such  a  term  may  be  applied  to  a  being  gifted  with 
the  superior  faculty  of  reason — is  universally  diffused  among,  men.  We  find  the 
most  untutored  savage  expert  after  his  degree  in  the  pursuits  of  the  chase  ;  and, 
under  a  regime  of  the  most  complete  civilization,  the  gentleman  is  still  a  hunter. 
Fortunately  for  him,  he  follows  the  chase  no  longer  from  necessity,  or  to  procure 
food,  but  simply  to  obtain  from  its  mimic  warfare  a  certain  amount  of  relaxation 
and  excitement.  The  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  a  gauge  of  civilization.  Where 
agriculture  and  its  kindred  arts  flourish,  peace,  health,  and  wealth  are  its  attendants 
upon  man,  while  the  fiercer  and  more  ferocious  animals  either  cease  to  exist,  or  are 
kept  within  strong  and  impassable  bounds. 

600.  By  what  means  is  man  enabled  to  influence  the  forms 
and  qualities  of  various  animals  which  belong  to  them  at  their 
birth ;  and  to  create,  as  it  were,  new  varieties  at  will  ? 

Because  all  the  individuals  of  the  same  species  do  not  possess,  to 
the  same  degree,  the  physical  and  instinctive  qualities  with  which 
the  species  are  generally  endowed  ;  and  by  the  exercise  or  the 
influence  of  physical  conditions,  man  can  develop  a  particular 
faculty,  and  consequently  increase  these  differences. 

He  may,  within  certain  limits,  modify  races  at  his  pleasure  ;  for 
he  is  able  to  choose,  or  even  to  produce,  individual  differences, 
which  are  transmissable  from  one  to  the  other  ;  and  to  regulate 
the  succession  of  generations,  so  as  to  remove  from  them  all  that 
would  tend  to  separate  the  race  from  the  type  which  he  wishes  to 
produce  ;  and  he  can  thus  influence  the  hereditary  qualities  of  the 
young,  as  he  had  done  those  of  their  parents. 


200 


THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  As  Jacob  used  an  ingenious  invention  to  make  Luban's 
cattle  speckled  or  ring-staked,  so  much  the  skill  in  making 
tulips  feathered  and  variegated,  with  stripes  of  divers  colours," 

PtFttiBB. 


601.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  our  various  domesticated  animals  ;  and  ther» 
are  none  that  show  it  more  strongly  than  dogs.  Not  only  do  the  different  races 
of  dogs  vary  in  the  colour  and  quantity  of  their  hair,  but  also  in  the  proportions  ol 
the  different  parts  of  their  bodies,  and  even  in  their  instincts.  How  different,  fat 
example,  are  the  greyhound  and  the  mastiff, 


v*. 


the  bloodhound  and  the  spaniel.  We  could  scarcely  imagine  that  any  period  of 
time,  or  external  influence,  could  ever  convert  one  into  the  other.  And  yet  they 
had  one  common  origin  ;  and  it  is  found  that  their  distinct  forms  are  preserved 
only  so  long  as  they  are  matched  in  breeds. 

Among  the  problems  of  high  theoretical  interest  which  the  recent  progress  of 
geology  and  natural  history  has  brought  into  notice,  no  one  is  move  prominent, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  more  obscure,  than  that  relating  to  the  origin  of  species.  On 
this  difficult  and  mysterious  subject  Mr.  Charles  Darwin  has  bestowed  long  and 
anxious  attention  ;  and  the  result  of  some  twenty  years'  observation  and 
experiments  in  zoology,  botany,  and  geology,  has  established  in  his  mind  the 
conclusion  that  those  powers  of  nature  which  give  rise  to  races  and  permanent 
varieties  in  animals  and  plants,  are  the  same  as  those  which,  in  much  longer 
period's,  produce  species,  and  in  a  still  longer  series  of  ayes,  give  rise  to  difference* 
oj  generic  rank,* 


602.  How  is  the  distribution  of  animals  over   the  surface  oj 
the,  globe  accounted  for  f 

Several    hypotheses  have  been  set    up    to    account    for    this 


•  Professor  Lyeil* 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  201 


"  The  heavenly  bodies  (as  growne  now  lesse  strong) 
Doe  seeme  more  stalke  (as  weary  of  their  race) 
All  climats  still  new  temperatures  embrace, 
What  strange  effects  must  follow  them  ere  long  1  " — STIRMNO. 

distribution.  But  it  may  not  be  unreasonable  to  assume  that  at 
the  beginning  of  the  actual  geological  period,  the  various  species 
were  limited  to  narrow  regions,  and  that  by  degrees  they  afterwards 
spread  to  a  distance,  so  as  to  occupy  a  more  or  less  considerable 
portion  of  the  surface  of  the  globe. 


COS.  The  circumstances  which  favour  the  dissemination  of  species  are  of  two 
kinds.  The  first  is  connected  with  or  dependent  on  the  nature  of  the  animal ;  the 
second,  with  causes  foreign  to  it.  In  the  number  of  the  first,  the  development  of 
the  locomotive  power  holds  an  important  place.  All  things  being  equal,  the  species 
which  live  fixed  to  the  soil,  or  which  possess  but  imperfect  instruments  for 
locomotion,  occupy  but  a  restricted  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  globe,  compared 
with  the  species  whose  movements  of  translation  are  rapid  and  energetic.  Thus, 
birds  have  a  most  extended  area,  whilst  reptiles,  on  the  contrary,  are  generally 
confined  to  narrow  limits. 


604.  IVJi.y  do  differences  of  climate  serve  to  arrest  the  march 
of  animals  from-  one  region  to  another  ? 

Because  there  are  throughout  all  nature,  mutual  adaptations  of 
animate  and  inanimate  existences — of  organic  and  inorganic  forms. 
This  is  seen  in  the  growth  of  vegetables,  as  well  as  in  the 
development  of  animals. 


605.  Apes,  which  crowd  the  tropical  regions,  almost  always  die  of  pulmonary 
consumption  when  they  are  exposed  to  the  coldness  and  humidity  of  our  climate  ; 
while  the  rein-deer,  formed  to  support  the  rigours  of  a  long  and  rude  Lapland 
winter,  suffers  from  heat  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  in  general  sinks  quickly  under  the 
Influence  of  a  temperate  climate. 

Man  and  the  dog  are  the  only  species  that  can  support  the  two  extremes  of 
arctic  cold  and  tropical  heat. 

The  influence  of  temperature  on  the  animal  economy  explains  to  us  why  certain 
species  remain  cantoned  in  a  chain  of  mountains,  without  being  able  to  spread 
abroad  into  analogous  localities.  We  know  that  the  temperature  decreases  by 
reason  of  the  elevation  of  the  soil ;  and  that,  in  consequence,  animals  which  live  at 
considerable  elevations  could  not  descend  into  the  low  plains  to  reach  other 
mountains  without  traversing  countries  where  the  temperature  is  much  superior 
to  that  of  their  ordinary  habitation. 


202  THE    REASON   WHY  : 


"  What   means  the  bull,  unconscious  of  his  strength,  to   play 
the  coward,  and  flee  before  such  a  feeble  thing  as  man  ?"— BLAI& 


606.  Why  are,  the    largest    quadrupeds  found  in  Africa,  and 
the  largest  reptiles  in  America? 

Africa  abounds  in  dry  deserts,  and  is  the  most  luxurious  as  to  its 
vegetable  productions,  which  circumstances  are  favourable  to  the 
growth  of  such  animals  as  elephants,  rhinoceri,  and  hippopotami. 
The  vast  swamps  which  border  the  great  American  rivers  naturally 
favour  the  development  of  the  reptile  order,  and  there  abound 
the  largest  species  and  the  greatest  variety. 

607.  What  relation  exists  between  the  elevation  of  temperature 
in  different  zoological  regions,    and  the  organic  perfection  of  the 
animals  inhabiting   them  ? 

In  the  hottest  climates  the  animals  are  found  most  to  approach 
man  ;  and  those  which  in  each  great  zoological  division  possess  the 
organization  the  most  complex,  and  the  faculties  most  developed ; 
whilst  in  the  polar  regions  we  meet  only  with  beings  occupying  a 
rank  but  little  elevated  in  the  zoological  series.  The  apes,  for 
example,  are  limited  to  the  hottest  parts  of  the  two  continents  ;  it 
is  the.  same  with  parrots  amon^  birds  ;  the  crocodile  and  tortoise 
amongst  reptiles  ;  and  of  land-crabs  amongst  the  Crustacea — all 
animals  the  most  perfect  in  their  respective  classes. 

608.  Wliij   may  we  infer  that  animals    are    ignorant    of    the 
strength  which  they  possess  ? 

Because  if  animals  knew  their  strength,  it  would  be  impossible 
to  harness  the  horse  to  a  vehicle,  or  drive  an  ox  to  the  slaughter. 
It  is  the  fact  of  man  being  able  to  acquire  knowledge,  and  animals 
being  incapable,  which  gives  the  former  that  power  over  the  latter 
by  which  their  movements  are  made  subservient  to  his  will. 

609.  Why  are   the  fiercer  preying   animals  generally  solitary 
in  their  habits  ? 

Because  their  nature,  but  for  this  instinct,  would  lead  them  to 
exert  their  cornbativeness  upon  each  other,  and  so  extinguish 
their  own  species. 


NATURAL   HISTOiiT.  203 


"  So  dismal  and  amazing    a   devastation,  as  in  all  the  circum 
stances  of  it,  is  scarcely  to  be  paralleled  in  history." — TILLOTSOX. 

"  That  trample  down  the  flowers  and  brush  the  dew." — DRYUEN. 

Because,  also,  their  chief  purpose  in  creation  seems  to  have  been 
to  act  as  checks  upon  the  redundancy  of  other  animals,  or  as 
scavengers  clearing  away  the  offal  left  upon  the  earth's  surface. 
To  this  end  their  solitariness  contributes  by  spreading  their 
numbers  over  a  wider  surface,  and  with  greater  equality. 

610.  Why  are  carnivorous  animals,  and  the  larger  quadrupeds, 
less  prolific  than  other  species  of  the  animal  kingdom  ? 

If  the  number  of  carnivorous  animals  were  excessive,  their 
rapacity  would  devastate  the  earth,  while  the  larger  quadrupeds 
would  desolate  the  land  by  trampling  down  vegetation,  and  by 
the  enormous  quantity  they  would  consume. 

611.  It  should  also  be  observed  that  these  two  classes  have  no  natural  enemies  to 
contend  with  ;  the  sanguinary  character  of  the  one,  and  the  bulk  of  the  other, 
securing  them  from  violence.  Of  herbivorous  and  other  animals  essential  to  man, 
either  as  food,  or  for  his  other  purposes,  the  increase  Is  surprising,  and  exactly 
proportioned  to  his  necessities  and  to  the  means  the  earth  affords  for  their 
subsistence ;  and  this  rule  applies  equally  to  the  wild  districts,  where  the  savage 
tribes,  in  supporting  their  existence,  check  the  exuberance  of  what  would 
otherwise  be  an  evil  rather  than  a  blessing. 

612.   Why  do  animals  usually  seize  their  prey  by  the  throat  ? 

Because  their  instinct  guides  them  to  select  some  vital  part,  or 
at  all  events  some  part  where  death  can  be  caused  in  the  most 
summary  manner. 

The  weasel  tribe  divide  the  blood-vessels  in  the  side  of  the  neck, 
even  of  animals  much  larger  than  themselves,  with  as  much 
accuracy  and  precision  as  if  they  had  carefully  studied  the 
anatomical  structure  of  their  prey  ;  and  though  the  larger  cats 
throw  themselves  on  the  backs  of  those  animals  which  they  are 
unable  to  beat  to  the  ground  by  the  force  of  their  spring, 
they  tear  the  muscles  of  those  parts  on  which  the  power  of 
escape  of  their  prey  depends,  and  thus  bring  it  most  easily  to 
the  ground,  when  they  speedily  dispatch  it,  by  lacerating  the 
vital  parts. 


204  THE   REASON  WHY  : 

"  First  take  his  head,  then  tell  the  reason  why ; 
Stand  not  to  find  him  guilty  by  your  laws  : 
You  easier  shall  with  him  your  quarrel  try, 
Dead  than  alive,  who  hath  the  better  cause."— 

613.  Why  do  animals  hunt  amicably  in  company,  a/nd 
quarrel  immediately  the  pursuit  is  over  ? 

Because  the  temporary  association  is  generally  occasioned  by 
the  pressing  calls  of  hunger,  and  by  an  instinct  which  leads 
individuals  to  unite  their  strength  for  accomplishing  an  act  of 
rapine  or  of  bloodshed.  While  engaged  in  this  pursuit,  good 
fellowship  continues  ;  but  when  the  booty  is  obtained,  all 
community  is  dissolved,  and  they  either  quarrel  over  their  prey, 
or  at  once  disperse. 

614.  Hyenas,  wild  dogs,  wolves,  jackals,  and  the  hunting  leopards,  are  all 
striking  and  familiar  instances  of  such  associations.  So  long  as  food  can  be  supplied 
by  individual  exertion,  each  appears  to  provide  for  itself;  but  when  food  becomes 
scarce,  or  a  herd  of  peaceful  antelopes  are  passing  on  their  migration,  they 
instantaneously  unite  into  bands,  and  commence  a  simultaneous  attack  upon 
their  prey. 

615.  How  do  we  find  that  the  safety  of  the  weakest  animals 
is  provided  for  as  effectually  as  that  of  the  strong? 

TLe  power  of  defence  given  to  animals  is  peculiarly  adapted  to 
meet  those  exegencies  to  which  every  species  is  more  especially 
exposed.  The  powers  of  protection  are  of  two  kinds  : — 

The  first  are  offensive :  these  consist  in  the  exertion  of  force,  by 
which  assaults  are  made  by  weapons  or  instruments  possessed  by 
the  animal  itself,  and  requiring  his  active  exertion  in  their  use  ; 
and  such  powers  may  obviously  be  employed  either  in  offensive 
or  defensive  warfare.  The  horns  and  the  teeth  of  quadrupeds,  the 
stings  and  jaws  of  insects,  and  the  poisonous  fangs  of  reptiles, 
are  of  this  description. 

The  second  class  of  defences  are  strictly  passive ;  they  are  as 
effectual  in  most  cases  as  the  first  class,  but  they  require  no 
exertion  of  the  animal  to  bring  them  into  operation.  We 
accordingly  find  that  these  protections  are  given  to  the  weakest 
and  most  helpless  animals. 

616.  The  power  which  the  toad  has  of  inflating  his  body  to  prevent  f.l}e  possibility 
of  his  Toeing  swallowed  by  snake|| 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  205 


"  The  name  of  reason  she  obtains  hy  this : 
But  when  by  reason  she  the  truth  has  found, 
And  standeth  fixed,  the  Understanding  is." — DAVIES. 


Tht  diffusion  of  an  offensive  smell  by  the  pole-cat; 

The  emission  of  a  black  fluid  by  the  cuttle-fish  ; 

The  spiny  hides  of  the  hedge-hog  and  the  porcupine,  and  the  stinging  hairs  -which 
envelope  many  caterpillars,  are  a  few  out  of  the  innumerable  instances  of  the 
passive  defences  spoken  of. 

But  there  is  still  another  property  which  does  not  come  under  either  of  these 
definitions,  namely,  the  astonishing  vitality  possessed  by  such  beings  as  are  most 
exposed  to  injuries,  and  by  which  life  is  not  only  supported  without  food  for  an 
amazing  length  of  time,  but  dislocated  portions  grow  and  become  new  animals. 

617.  Why    have     quadruped*    feet    of    small    dimensions     in 
comparison  with  their  bodies  ? 

Because  when  an  animal  is  supported  on  four  feet,  the  extent  of 
its  base  of  sustentation,  and  therefore  its  stability,  cannot  be 
augmented  in  a  sensible  degree  by  extending  the  magnitude  of 
the  feet.  In  fact,  to  have  done  so  would  have  increased  their 
weight  and  diminished  their  speed  and  activity,  without 
conferring  upon  them  any  counteracting  advantage.  The  Creator, 
therefore,  while  he  gave  bipeds  stability  by  making  them  walk 
on  the  soles  of  their  feet,  gave  quadrupeds  lightness  and 
swiftness  by  causing  them  to  walk  on  their  toes. 

618.  What  is  the  difference  between  reason  and  instinct? 

Reason  means  the  comparison  of  one  thing  with  another  ;  and 
in  its  more  general  sense,  as  applicable  to  the  thoughts  and 
conduct  of  man,  it  means  the  comparison  of  that  which  he  purposes 
to  do,  with  that  experience  in  the  past,  either  felt  in  himself  or 
learned  from  others,  and  the  result  of  which  comparison  is  to  be 
the  guide  of  his  actions. 

Instinct,  though  possessed  by  man  up  to  a  certain  point,  is  the 
proper  badge  and  characteristic  of  the  lower  animals.  Taken  in 
its  general  sense,  it  means  the  capacity  which  is  within  ;  win  h 
borrows  nothing  from  comparison  and  cannot  piotifc  by  experience  ; 
but  acts  from  the  impulse  of  perfect  objects  on  its  organs  of  sense  ; 
also  is  indifferent  to,  and  ignorant  oij  the  past  and  the  future. 


206  THE    REASOX  WHY  : 


"  But  honest  instinct  comes  a  volunteer, 
Sure  never  to  o'ershoot,  but  just  to  hit; 
While  still  too  wide  or  short  is  human  wit." — POPE. 


The  laws  which  govern  reason  are  moral  laws  ;  instinct  is  alone 
under  physical  influence.  A.  moral  law  is  given  to  man  only 
because  man  alone  has  a  moral  nature,  i.e.,  a  nature  distinct  from 
his  physical  nature.  The  lower  animals  have  only  a  physical  law, 
which  they  strictly  fulfil.  Man  is  said  to  be  the  only  ungrateful 
being  which  God  has  created,  because,  having  received  a  moral 
nature,  he  frequently  choosos  to  follow  the  law  of  physical  nature 
only :  ignoring,  or  openly  disobeying,  the  law  of  his  moral 
being. 

619.  Of  instinct  we  can  know  nothing  further  than  that  it  is  a  name  which  we  give 
to  those  movements  and  actions  of  anim  Is  of  which  we  can  give  no  explanation. 
The  word  instinct,  though  we  can  hardly  avoid  using  it,  is  never  anything  else  than 
a  subterfuge  or  our  ignorance  of  the  means  by  which  any  action  of  an  animal  is 
brought  about ;  and  we  may  rest  assured  that  natural  actions  are  no  more  per- 
formed  without  means  in  the  unexplained  cases,  than  in  the  explained  ones.* 

620.  Why  will   one,    species   of  cmimal    allow   the    young   of 
another  species  to  suckle  it  ? 

Because  it  has  been  most  beautifully  and  providentially  ordered 
that  the  process  of  suckling  should  afford  pleasure  to  tht 
parent.  So  that  when  a  dam  has  been  deprived  of  its  own 
offspring,  it  derives  some  amount  of  gratification  from  the 
suckling  of  another. 

621.  Cats  have  been  known  to  suckle  hares  ;  pigs  to  give  nurture  to  puppies  ;  and 
cows  to  goats.    It  has  even  been  asserted  that  human  beings,  exposed  to  death  in 
woods  by  unnatural  parents,  have  been  indebted  to  wild  beasts  for  their  nurture, 
an  occurrence  which  is  not  a  whit  more  marvellous  than  animals  of  one  species 

'  allowing  the  offspring  of  a  species  totally  opposed  to  it  in  habits  and  instinct  to 
suckle  them. 

622.  Why  does  the  attachment  between  young  animals  and 
their  parents  decline  when  the  former  arrive  at  maturity? 

Because,  if  the  affections  were  allowed  to  operate  for  a  longer 
period,  the  dispersion  of  animals,  which  is  as  essential  as  the 
scattering  of  the  seeds  of  plants,  would  be  materially  checked 

•  Partingtou's  "  Cyclopaedia." 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  207 


O  imitators,  servyle  bcastcs, 

How  have  your  tumultcs  vyle 
Full  oi'tens  rasde  my  collor  vp, 

And  oftens  made  me  smyle."— DRANT. 

There  are  also  physiological  reasons,  which  relate  to  the  health, 
increase,  and  purity  of  the  species ;  and  economical  reasons 
comprehending  the  means  of  subsistence. 

623.  Why  is  the  faculty  of  imitation  in  animals  sometimes 
subservient  to  their  necessities? 

Doubtless,  in  the  wilds  of  nature,  many -instances  of  imitation 
occur  unobserved.  An  animal,  unaccustomed  to  that  habit,  may, 
in  great  extremity,  climb  a  tree  in  search  of  prey  ;  or  an  herbivorous 
animal  may  dig  into  the  earth  to  find  roots.  This  may  arise,  either 
from  imitation,  or  from  a  latent  instinct  called  into  operation  only 
under  the  promptings  of  extreme  hunger. 

But  there  are  evidences  of  animals  in  the  domestic  state  frequently 
imitating  some  action  they  have  witnessed,  when  extremity  compels 
them  to  do  so.  Thus  a  dog  will  attempt  to  turn  the  handle  of  a  door, 
and  sometimes  successfully,  when  he  wishes  to  obtain  egress  ;  and 
a  cat,  seeing  a  person  eating,  will  extend  its  paw,  as  a  human 
being  would  his  hand,  for  food. 

624.  The  following  is  a  remarkable  account  of  a  dog  obtaining  food  by  ringing  a 
bell : — At  a  convent  in  France,  twenty  paupers  were  served  with  a  dinner  at  a 
certain  hour  in  the  day.  A  dog  belonging  to  the  convent  did  not  fail  to  be  present 
at  this  meal  to  receive  the  odds  and  ends  which  were  now  and  then  thrown  down  to 
him.  The  guests,  however,  were  poor  and  hungry,  and  of  course  not  very  waste 
ful  ;  so  that  their  pensioner  did  little  more  than  scent  the  feast,  of  which  he  woul.1 
fain  have  partaken.  The  portions  were  served  by  a  person  at  the  ringing  of  a  bell, 
and  delivered  out  by  what  in  a  religious  house  is  called  a  tour,  which  is  ;i  machine, 
like  the  section  of  a  cask,  that,  by  turning  round  upon  a  pivot,  exhibits  whatever 
is  placed  upon  the  converse  side  without  discovering  the  person  who  moves  it. 

One  day  this  dog,  who  had  only  received  a  few  scraps,  waited  till  the  paupera 
•were  all  gone,  with  the  rope  in  his  mouth,  and  rung  the  bell.  This  stratagem 
succeeded.  He  repeated  it  the  next  day,  with  the  same  good  fortune.  At  length 
the  cook,  finding  that  twenty-one  portions  were  delivered  out  instead  of  twenty, 
was  determined  to  discover  the  trick,  in  doing  which  he  had  no  great  difficulty ; 
for,  lying  hidden,  noticing  the  paupers  as  they  came  in,  in  great  regularity,  for 
their  different  portions,  and  finding  that  there  was  no  intruder  except  the  dog, 
he  began  to  suspect  the  real  truth,  which  he  was  soon  confirmed  in  when  he  saw 
the  dog  wait  with  great  deliberation  till  the  visitors  were  all  gone,  and  then  pull 
\he  bell  The  matter  was  related  to  the  community  ;  and,  to  reward  the  dojf 


THE   REASON   WHY  : 


What  is  his  creation  less 

Than  a  capacious  reservoir  of  means 

Form'd  for  his  use,  and  ready  at  his  will." — COWI-KU. 


for  his  h  /enuity,  he  was  permitted    to  ring1  every  day   for  his  dinner,  when  a 
mass  of  bioken  victuals  was  purposely  served  out  to  him. 

To  illustrate  further  the  use  of  the  imitative  faculties  under  extremities,  we 
have  only  to  adduce  the  simulation  of  death,  practised  by  so  many  species,  -with 
intent  to  weaken  the  instinctive  vigilance  of  their  foes  or  prey.  The  fax  has  been 
known  to  personate  a  defunct  carcase,  when  sin-prised  in  a  hen-house ;  and  it  has 
even  suffered  itself  to  be  carried  out  by  the  brush,  and  thrown  upon  a  dung-heap, 
whereupon  it  instantly  rose  and  took  to  its  heels,  to  the  astounding  dismay  of  its 
human  dupe.  In  like  manner,  this  animal  has  submitted  to  be  carried  for  more 
than  a  mile,  swung  over  the  shoulder,  with  its  head  hanging ;  till,  at  length,  it 
effected  its  release  by  suddenly  biting.  The  same  animal  has  been  known,  when 
hunted  to  crouch  exposed  upon  a  rock  of  nearly  its  own  colour,  in  the  midst  of  a 
river,  and  so  to  evade  detection  by  its  pursuers  ;  and  we  perpetually  hear  such  cases 
brought  forward  as  decisive  proofs  of  its  extreme  sagacity. 

625.  How  are  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  Providence  displayed 
in   the  relation  which  subsists  between  the  external  organs  of  an 
animal,  by  which  it  procures  its  food,  and  the  internal  organs  by 
which  the  food  is  digested  ? 

This  beautiful  relation  is  observable  in  several  species  of  the 
animal  creation.  Birds  of  prey,  by  their  talons  and  beaks,  are 
qualified  to  seize  and  devour  many  species,  both  of  birds  and 
quadrupeds.  The  construction  of  the  stomach  agrees  exactly  with 
the  form  of  the  members.  The  gastric  juice  of  a  bird  of  prey, 
an  owl,  a  falcon,  or  a  kite,  act  upon  the  animal  fibre  alone  ;  it  will 
not  act  upon  seeds  or  grasses.  . 

On  the  other  hand,  the  conformation  of  the  mouth  of  the  sheep 
or  the  ox  is  suited  for  browsing  upon  herbage.  Nothing  about  these 
animals  is  fitted  for  the  pursuit  of  living  prey.  Accordingly  it  has 
been  found  by  experiments,  tried  with  perforated  balls,  that  the 
gastric  juice  of  ruminating  animals  speedily  dissolves  vegetables, 
but  makes  no  impression  upon  animal  substances. 

626.  How  does  the    structure  of  the  jaw  and  teeth  of  variow 
animals  indicate  the  kinds  of  food  upon  which  they  subsist? 

The  form  of  teeth  may  easily  be  understood  to  indicate  whether 


NATURAL    HISTORY  209 


"  For,  ere  the  beech  and  elm  have  cast  their  leaf 
Deciduous,  when  now  November  dark 
Checks  vegetation  in  the  torpid  plant, 
Expos'd  to  his  cold  breath,  the  task  begins." — COWPER. 

they  are  designed  for  cutting  or  grinding.  The  relation  of  the  jaw, 
and  the  muscular  forces  by  which  it  is  moved,  requires  a  closer 
examination. 

In  herbivorous  animals,  which  have  to  grind  down  their  food  by 
constant  trituration,  the  jaw  is  fixed  to  the  skull,  so  as  to  allow 
the  former  to  have  a  rotatory  movement  ;  but  such  a  movement 
would  be  useless  to  carnivorous  animals,  where  the  grinding  operation 
is  not  required. 

In  carnivorous  animals  the  jaw  is  locked  in  the  cavity  of  the 
skull  by  ligaments,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  parts  of  a  hinge  are 
fixed  together.  The  cavity  is  deep  and  elongated,  and  the 
articulating  surface  of  the  jaw-bone  corresponds,  so  that  the  joint 
can  have  only  a  hinge-like  motion. 


627.  This  is  remarkably  conspicuous  in  the  eordycles  of  the  lower  jaw  of  the  sea- 
otter.  The  jaw  of  the  sea-wotf  is  composed  of  several  pieces,  instead  of  being  one 
entire  bone  ;  and  these  pieces  are  connected  by  ligaments,  so  that  a  greater  freedom 
of  motion  is  allowed,  and  the  concussion  to  the  brain  arising  from  the  reduction 
of  crabs,  muscles,  and  other  shell-fish  upon  which  the  animal  feeds,  is  diminished, 
the  jar  being  broken  by  being  divided  over  a  number  of  bones. 


628.   IVTiy  do  some,  animals  undergo  a  state  of  torpor  during 
the  winter  ? 


Because  during  the  winter  they  cannot  produce  more  heat  than 
is  sufficient  to  raise  their  temperature  from  20°  to  26°  above  the 
surrounding  atmosphere.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  while  in  the 
hottest  part  of  summer  their  temperature  is  nearly  the  same  as 
that  of  other  warm-blooded  animals,  it  falls  to  a  much  lower 
point  in  the  cold  season ;  and  whenever  the  depression  of 
temperature  attains  a  certain  limit,  the  circulation  and  respiration 
decrease  in  frequency  and  energy,  so  that  the  animal  falls  into  a 
state  of  torpor,  or  lethargic  sleep,  which  continues  until  the 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere  is  sufficiently  elevated  to  re-establish 
the  activity  of  the  \ital  functions. 


210  THE  REASON  WHY: 


"  The  miijra'ion  of  birds  from  a  hotter  to  a  colder  country, 
or  a  c  Ider  to  a  hotter,  according  to  the  seasons  of  the  year,  as 
their  nature  is,  I  know  not  how  to  give  an  account  of  it,  it  is 
so  strange  and  admirable." — RAY. 

629.  Wliy  are  certain  species  of  animals  destined  to  perform  their 
functions  only  periodically  ? 

Because  it  has  been  allotted  to  them  to  check  superfluities 
and  remove  nuisances. 

"When  vegetation  develops  its  vast  powers  of  reproduction,  there 
issue  forth  from  their  winter  retreats  innumerable  creatures  that 
live  variously  upon  the  roots,  leaves,  or  seeds. 

When  the  vitality  of  vegetation  diminishes,  the  natural  office  of 
these  creatures  ends  ;  and  they  return  again  to  their  torpid 
condition. 

During  the  season  when  animal  existence  is  vigorous,  and  the 
destinies  of  nature  are  being  fulfilled,  the  great  harvest  of  death 
strews  millions  of  bodies  upon  the  face  of  nature.  Then  the 
scavengers  are  busy  day  and  night ;  and  either  devour  upon  the 
surface,  or  bury  in  the  earth,  those  substances  which  would  other 
wise  diffuse  pestilential  influences. 

630.  Wliy  do  some  portions  of  the  animal  creation  migrate? 

For  two  reasons  :  first,  the  welfare  of  the  migrating  animal  is 
promoted  by  finding  milder  regions,  and  a  continual  supply  of 
food;  second,  the  blessings  of  creation  are  thus  diffused,  by 
seasonable  visitations  of  creatures  useful  to  man,  to  those  localities 
where  he  stands  in  need  of  them. 

631.  Had  the  Creator  so  willed,  all  these  animals  might  have  been  organised  so  as 
not  to  require  a  warmer  or  colder  climate  for  the  breeding  or  rearing  of  their  young ; 
but  His  will  was,  that  some  of  His  best  gifts  should  thus  oscillate,  as  it  were, 
between  two  points,  that  the  benefit  they  conferred  might  be  more  widely  dis 
tributed,  and  not  become  the  sole  property  of  the  inhabitants  of  one  climate.  Time 
the  all-wise  and  beneficent  Being  has  so  organised  certain  classes  of  animals,  and 
circumstanced  them,  as  to  be  directed  annually,  by  some  pressing  want,  to  seek 
distant  climates,  and,  after  a  certain  period,  to  return  again  to  their  former  quarters  ; 
am1  that  this  instinct  should  be  productive  of  so  much  good  to  mankind,  anJ,  at 
the  same  time,  be  necessary,  under  its  piesent  circumstances,  for  the  preservation*** 
propagation  of  the  species  of  these  several  animals.* 

*  Partington's   "  Cyclopaedia." 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  211 

"  The  wisdom  of  the  Deity,  as  testified  in  the  works  of 
creation,  surpasses  all  idea  we  have  of  wisdom,  drawn  from  the 
highest  intellectual  operations  of  the  highest  class  of  intelligent 
beings  with  whom  we  are  acquainted." — PALEV. 

632.  How  is  the  wisdom  of  Providence,  shown  in  so  constituting 
the  lower  animals  that  they  can  exist  for  a  long  time  on  &  limited 
supply  of  air  and  moisture  ? 

Because  animals  thus  circumstanced  would  otherwise  find  it  im 
possible  to  exist  during  the  long  intervals  that  many  of  them  are 
periodically  or  occasionally  enclosed  in  inaccessible  places ;  so 
that  when  confined  in  solid  rocks,  or  sealed  up  in  the  hearts 
of  trees,  so  long  as  the  smallest  quantity  of  air  or  moisture 
is  supplied  them,  they  live  for  an  indefinite  period 
of  time. 

633.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  accounts  of  the  long  duration  of  the  vital  prin 
ciple  in  animals  is  mentioned  by  Ur.  Silliman,  who,  on  the  authority  of  Professor 
Eaton, ..of  New  York,  states  that  the  diluvial  deposit  through  which  the  Erie  canal 
was  made,  contains  ridges  of  hard  compact  gravel,  and  that  on  cutting  through  one 
of  these  near  Rome  village,  sixteen  miles  west  of  Utir.a,  the  workmen  found  several 
hundreds  of  live  molluscous  animals.  The  workmen  fried  and  ate  them.  He  adds  : 
"I  was  assured  they  were  taken  alive  forty-two  feet  deep  in  the  deposit.  Several  of 
the  shells  are  now  before  me.  The  deposit  is  diluvial.  These  animals  must  have 
been  there  from  the  time  of  the  deluge ;  for  the  earth  in  which  they  were  is  too 
compact  for  them  to  have  been  produced  by  a  succession  of  generations.  These 
fresh-water  clans  of  three  thousand  years  old  precisely  resemble  the  species  which 
now  inhabit  the  fresh  water  of  that  district ;  therefore  the  lives  of  these  animals 
have  been  greatly  prolonged  by  their  exclusion  from  light  and  air  for  more  than 
three  thousand  years."  A  toad  was  buried  in  a  flower-pot  for  twenty  years,  and 
when  taken  out  was  found  to  be  healthy  and  increased  in  size.  That  snails  can 
exist  for  a  long  period  by  means  of  the  exclusion  of  air  and  the  retention  of  moisture, 
which  they  are  enabled  to  accomplish  by  a  sort  of  door  at  the  aperture  of  the  shell, 
has  been  proved  by  Mr.  Simon,  who  mentions  the  circumstance  of  having  had  one 
in  his  cabinet  for  fifteen  years ;  and,  for  aught  he  knew,  it  might  have  been  in  his 
father's  possession  many  years  before,  as  it  was  in  his  collection  of  fossils.  Speak 
ing  of  this  snail,  he  says  it  had  come  out  four  several  times,  in  the  presence  of 
different  people,  each  of  whom  assured  him  that  they  saw  it.  A  day  or  two 
after  this,  he  brought  the  identical  shell,  as  he  declared,  into  the  presence  of  several 
other  persons,  that  they  might 'try  if  the  snail  would  again  make  its  appearance. 
After  the  shell  had  lain  ten  minutes  in  a  glass  of  warm  water,  the  snail  began  to 
appear,  and  in  five  minutes  more  they  perceived  half  the  body  fairly  pushed  out 
from  the  cavity  of  the  shell.  It  afterwards  crawled  about,  erected  its  horns,  an'l 
se?med  in  perfect  health. 


812  THE   REASON   WHY  I 


"  If  chance  at  length  he  find  a  greensward  smooth, 
And  faithful  to  the  foot  his  spirits  rise, 
He  chomps  brisk  his  par-erecting  steed, 
And  winds  his  way  with  pleasure  and  with  ease." — COWPER. 

634.  Why  are  the  ears  of  some  animals  turned  forwards,  and 
those  of  others  backwards  ? 

The  external  ears  of  beasts  of  prey,  as  lions,  tigers,  and  wolves, 
have  their  trumpet-part  or  concavity  standing  forward,  to  seize 
the  sounds  which  are  before  them — namely,  the  sounds  of  the 
animals  which  they  pursue  or  watch.  The  ears  of  animals  of  flight 
are  turned  backward,  to  give  notice  of  the  approach  of  an  enemy 
from  behind,  that  he  may  not  steal  upon  them  unawares. 
(See  392.) 


635.  Why,  in  animals  of  great  speed;  is  the  shoulder  connected  to 
the  trunk  by  the  agency  of  muscles,  and  not  by  a  collar-bone  ? 

Because,  if  animals  possessing  great  speed  had  been  formed  with 
a  collar-bone,  it  could  not  have  withstood  the  shock  from  the 
descent  of  the  whole  weight  of  the  animal  when  tbroTra  forwards  ; 
and  even  though  the  structure  of  the  fore  legs  had  been  as  powerful 
as  the  posterior  extremities,  they  would  have  suffered  fracture  or 
dislocation.  This  beautiful  provision  not  only  serves  to  diminish 
the  shock  of  descending,  but  contributes  to  the  elasticity  of  the 
anterior  extremities. 

636.  Why  are  the  knee-joints  of  the  hind  ler/8  of  most  swimming 
animals  tunud  round,  as  in  a  person  who  is  knock-kneed  ? 

Because  by  this  mode  of  articulation  the  hind  legs  form  a  kind 
of  swimming  sail ;  and,  in  consequence  of  this  they  act  more 
horizontally,  and  thereby  impel  the  animal  forward  in  the  water 
with  more  velocity  and  with  less  exertion. 


637.  Animals  which  arc  constructed  principally  for  walking  on  the  land  make  the 
chief  exertion  with  the  fore  feet  when  they  swim  ;  and,  therefore,  they  are  sooner 
fatigued  than  when  they  move  even  faster  upon  land  ;  hut  quadruped  animals 
having  a  regular  swimming  habit,  impel  themselves  chiefly  by  means  of  the  hind 
*eet,  and  on  this  account  they  are  no  more  latigued  in  water  than  tbay  are  on  laud. 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


213 


"  Whose  snout  hath  rooted  up 

The  fruitful  vineyard  of  the  commonwealth." 

BEAUMONT  A.ND  FLETCHI 


The  reason  of  this  will  be  readily  understood  by  those  who  are  aware  how  ir.-jch 
more  easily  a  boat  is  pulled  by  oars  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  water  than  when  th« 
oars  have  to  dip  deeply  into  the  water,  and  are  used  near  the  bows. 

638.   Why  have  certain  species  of  animals  sharp-pointed  snouts  ? 


To  enable  them  to  seek  their 
nourishment  from  the  ground. 
Thus  the  tapir  species,  nearly 
allied  to  the  hog,  have 
their  noses  much  prolonged  in 
front  of  the  mouth,  constitut 
ing  a  little  trunk,  capable  of 
lengthening  and  shortening 
itself.  The  shrews  and  small 
insectivorous  animals,  nearly 
allied  to  the  shrew,  but 
formed  to  swim  with  ease,  and 

to  live  at  the  bottom  of  burrows  hollowed  in  the  banks  of  rivers, 

also  exhibit  a  similar  conformation.     (See  466.) 

639.  Why  is  the  fur  of  some  animals  changed  in  the  winter  from 
a  dark  to  a  white  colour? 

Because,  although  the  darker  colours  absorb  heat  to  a  greater 
degree  than  the  lighter  ones,  so  that  dark-coloured  clothing  is  much 
warmer  than  light-coloured,  where  the  wearer  is  exposed  to  the  sun's 
rays,  the  radiation  of  heat  is  also  much  greater  from  dark  than  from 
light-coloured  surfaces,  and  consequently  the  animal  heat  from 
within  is  more  completely  retained  by  a  white  than  by  a  dark 
covering.  The  temperature  of  an  animal,  therefore,  having  whita 
fur,  would  continue  more  equable  than  that  of  one  clothed  in 
darker  colours,  although  the  latter  would  experience  a  greater 
degree  of  warmth  when  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays.  Another  reason 
may  be  that  the  mottled  browns,  which  form  the  principal  colours  of 
the  animals  alluded  to,  although  well  adapted  for  their  concealment 


214  THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  Nor  with  less  waste  the  whisker"1  d  vermin  race, 
A  countless  clan,  destroy  the  lowland  caue." — GKAINOKR. 


amongst  the  brown  heaths  and  fern  of  the  summer  and  autumn, 
would  be  too  conspicuous  by  contrast  for  the  safety  of  the  animals 
amongst  the  winter  snow. 

640.  Why     are     certain     quadrupeds — such     as     the     argali 
(mountain  sheep  of  Armenia),  the  hare,  and  the  sable,  furnished 
with  a  mixed  coating  of  hair  and  wool  ? 

Because,  while  wool  preserves  the  animal  heat  in  winter,  an  outef 
covering  of  hair  is  required  to  throw  off  moisture ;  and  without  the 
latter  these  animals  would  suffer  both  from  wet,  and  from  the 
underwood  through  which  they  have  to  force  their  path. 

641.  Why  is  there  so  much  bleating  and  confusion  among  sheep 
after  the  ewes  and  lambs  have  been  shorn? 

After  this  operation,  neither  the  dams  nor  the  young  are  able  to 
distinguish  one  another  as  before.  The  embarrassment  arises 
not  alone  from  the  loss  of  the  fleece,  which  may  occasion 
an  alteration  in  their  appearance,  but  from  a  defect  in  the  odour, 
by  which  animals  discriminate  each  individual  personally.  The 
confusion  is  also  the  greater  on  account  of  the  strong  scent  of  the 
tar  or  other  substance  wherewith  they  are  newly  marked. 

642.  Why  are  some  species  of  animals  furnished  with   bristly 
hairs,  called  whiskers  ? 

Because  the  skin  of  the  upper  lip,  from  which  these  hairs  grow, 
is  so  very  sensitive  as  to  feel  the  slightest  bending  or  touch  of  any 
one  of  those  hairs  ;  and  by  this  means  they  act  as  very  important 
instruments  in  keeping  the  animal  free  from  contact  with  obstacles, 
while  it  is  advancing  with  its  eye  fixed  intently  on  its  prey. 

643.  Why  is  the  situation  of  the  nose  eminently  adapted  to  its 
uses  in  all  animals  ? 

Being  turned  downwards  in  all  animals  to  which  smell  is 
important,  it  receives  the  ascending  effluvia.  Being  situated  newt 


NATURAL   HISTORT. 


215 


"  From  forests,  fields,  from  rivers,  and  from  ponds, 
All  that  have  webs,  or  cloven -footed  ones, 
To  the  grand  Ark  together  friendly  cume, 
Whose  several  species  were  too  Isng  to  name."-— DRAYTOW. 

ih,e  mouth,  it  is  ever  active  and  watchful  in  determining  the  propei 
(Dualities  of  food  ;  and,  being  located  near  the  eyes,  it  is  instantly 
directed  to  objects  which  they  examine,  and  assists  them  in 
discriminating  the  qualities  of  objects. 

644.  How  may  the  species  of  animals  be  determined  by  an 
inspection  of  the  detached  organs  ? 

It  is  from  the  correspondence  between  single  characters,  and 
general  plans  of  structures,  that  the  nature  of  the  whole 
animal  is  determined,  from  a  single  fragment  of  its  skeleton, 
or  from  one  of  its  teeth.  In  no  animal  is  the  body  made  up 
of  a  number  of  disconnected  parts,  united,  as  it  were,  at  hazard  ; 
for  all  its  organs  hare  a  more  or  less  intimate  connection  with 
each  other,  so  that  there  is  a  kind  of  harmony  amongst  them  all, 
and  between  every  part  and  the  entire  structure. 


645.  Thus,  the  simple  Inspection  of  the 
tooth  represented  in  the  accompanying 
figure,  suffices  to  disclose  to  the  scientific 
natui'alist  the  following  facts  regarding  the 
animal  to  which  it  belonged.  In  the  first 
place,  thei-e  must  have  been  a  bony  frame' 
work,  in  which  this  tooth  was  planted,  and 
which  gave  support  to  the  rest  of  the  body  ; 
and  as  this  internal  framework  does  ti3\ 
exist  in  any  other  animals  than  those  of  the 
vertebrated  series,  we  know  that  the  animal 
in  question  had  the  brain  and  spinal  card, 
the  complete  set  of  organs  of  the  senses,  the 
rod  blood,  &c.,  &c.,  which  belong  to  th« 
sub-kingdom  only. 


Further,  there  are  certain  characters  about  the  roots  of  this  tooth  which  enable 
the  anatomist  to  fee  1  certain  that  it  must  hare  been  implanted  in  a  deep  socket, 
•which  is  only  the  case  in  mammals  and  reptiles  ;  and  he  may  further  determine 
from  them,  that  the  animal  belonged  to  the  former,  and  that  it  must  hare,  therefore, 
possessed  the  organization  which  is  peculiar  to  it. 

Again,  by  the  form  of  the  crown  of  the  tooth,  it  is  easily  shown  that  it  was 
destined  to  divide  animal  flesh ;  and  that  it  consequently  belonged  to  a  carnivorous 
quadruped.  To  digest  the  flesh,  the  animal  must  have  had  a  stomach  and  intestinal 


216  THE   REASON   WHY: 


"  He  hath  so  well  beset  his  ordinance, 
That  species  of  thinges  and  progressions 
Shullen  endurcn  by  successions, 
And  not  eterne,  withouten  any  lie." — CHAUCEE. 

canal  formed  upon  a  certain  plan  ;  and,  in  order  to  obtain  its  prey,  it  must  have  had 
appropriate  organs  of  locomotion  and  prehension.  Its  extremities  must  have 
terminated  in  separate  toes,  and  these  must  have  been  armed  with  claws.  The 
limbs  must  have  been  furnished  with  very  powerful  muscles,  to  enable  the  animal 
to  give  chase  to  its  prey,  or  to  spring  upon  it  unawares,  and  afterwards  drag  it  to 
its  den.  The  head,  also,  must  have  been  connected  with  the  spinal  column  by 
ligaments  and  muscles  of  great  power,  attached  to  elevated  portions  of  the 
vertebrae,  in  order  that  it  might  have  the  power  of  lifting  the  heavy  bodies  which  the 
animal  desired  to  remove.  The  lower  jaw  must  have  been  connected  with  the 
upper  by  a  hinge,  admitting  but  a  scraper-like  action,  by  which  the  edges  of  the 
cutting  teeth  were  constantly  kept  sharp  ;  and  the  muzzle  must  not  have  been  very 
protruberant,  otherwise  the  strength  of  the  muscles  which  raise  the  jaw  would 
be  applied  at  a  great  disadvantage.  The  cranial  cavity  must  have  been  com 
paratively  large,  in  order  that  the  size  of  the  brain  might  correspond  with  tho 
degree  of  vitality  which  the  habits  of  the  animal  required.  By  inferences  of  this 
kind,  and  under  the  guidance  of  our  knowledge  of  the  forms  at  present  existing,  all 
the  leading  peculiarities  of  an  animal  may  be  deduced  from  any  characteristic  por 
tion  of  it ;  for  if  any  part  essential  to  the  action  of  the  remainder  had  been  deficient, 
the  animal  could  not  have  maintained  its  existence. 

646.  We  have  heard  an  anecdote  related  of  Cuvier,  the  great 
naturalist.  Some  hair-brained  students  had  determined  to  play 
a  trick  upon  him,  and  to  try  the  strength  of  his  nerves. 
Accordingly  one  of  them  was  disguised  in  a  cow's  skin,  and 
concealed  under  a  table  in  the  dessecting-roorn..:  At  a  moment 
when  the  Baron  was  engaged  in  closely  examining  some  portion 
of  anatomical  structure,  a  loud  roar  came  from  beneath  the  table. 
The  Baron  turned  round  and  inquired,  "  Who's  there  ?"  A 
voice  replied,  "  I  am  the  devil,  and  mean  to  devour  you  !"  The 
Baron  looked  down,  and  seeing  a  cloven  hoof  projecting,  calmly 
proceeded  to  classify  the  animal :  "  Ah !  divided  hoof,  herbivorous 
teeth,  ruminating  stomach  ;  Class  I.,  Order  II.,  Sub-genus  III., 
Species,  Bos  taurus — you  can't  eat  flesh  /"  and  he  kicked  tho 
discomfited  trickster  from  his  hiding-place  ! 


NATURAL   HISTORY,  217 


For  when  I  see  how  they  do  mount  on  hie, 

Waving  their  outstretched  wings  with  libertie, 

Then  do  I  think,  how  bird-like  in  a  cage        [MIRROR  FOR 

My  life  I  leade,  and  grief  can  never  swage."— MAGISTRATES. 


CLASS     II.  —A  VES. 

ORDER  I.— ACCIPETRES. 

647.  Why  is  the  first  order  of  birds  catted  accipetres  ? 

From  the  Latin  ad  and  capio  to  seize.  The  name  has  been 
applied  to  this  order  to  denote  the  rapacious  character  of  its 
members.  From  the  same  root  we  derive  accipitrine,  as  the 
accipitrine  order  of  birds,  or  the  rapacious  order.  The  name 
implies  takers  by  force. 

The  accipetres  have  a  hooked  bill,  the  upper  mandible  near  the 
base  being  extended  on  each  side  beyond  the  inferior.  The  genera 
include  the  vulture,  the  falcon  or  hawk,  and  the  strix  or  owl,  &c. 

648.  Why  do  birds  of  prey  buUd  their  nests  upon   lofty  and 
barren  rocks? 

Their  predatory  nature  seems  to  impel  them  to  a  species  of 
isolation  ;  they  are  the  banditti  of  creation  ;  and,  like  them, 
they  affect  the  wildest  retreats  from  which  to  issue,  and  hunt 
down  their  prey. 

An  elevated  situation  gives  them  a  better  view  of  their  quarry  ; 
and  the  barrenness  of  the  soil  protects  their  eggs  from  the  reptiles 
which  would  make  them  their  prey. 

Cliffs  overhanging  the  sea,  deep  lakes  or  rivers,  afford  to  them 
facilities  for  taking  fish,  of  which  the  falcon  tribe  in  particular 
are  very  fond. 

649.  Why  are  the  legs  and  thighs  of  birds  of  prey  shorter  and 
more  robust  than  those  of  other  species  f 

It  is  by  means  of  these  chiefly  that  they  strike  and  hold  their 
prey ;  the  shortness  and  muscular  development  of  the  lower 
extremities  giving  greater  power  to  their  possessor  in  the  use  of 
the  other  members. 

10 


218  THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  Their  proud  eyes  do  not  see 

The  radiance  of  my  helmet  there,  whose  beames  had  instantly 
Thruste  backe,  and  all  these  ditches  filled  with  carrion  of  their  flesh, 
If  Agamemnon,  had  been  kinder." — CHAPMAN. 

650.  Those  who  remember  the  exhibition  a  few  years  since,  of  a  certain  dwarf 
called  Hervio  Nano— (Harvey  Leach) — will  have  seen  a  remarkable  illustration  of 
this  fact.  That  strangely  formed  individual,  whose  legs  were  not  more  than 
eighteen  or  twenty  inches  long,  but  whose  arms,  head,  and  chest,  were  finely 
developed,  contrived  with  the  greatest  ease  to  scramble — somewhat  like  a  lame 
fly — along  the  front  of  a  proscenium  and  across  the  ceiling  of  a  theatre,  by  grasping 
the  inequalities  of  the  moulding  only.  "The  Black  Dwarf"  of  Sir  Walter  Scott 
•was  a  being  thus  formed,  and  was,  by  the  great  novelist,  admitted  to  be  a  mere 
transcript  from  the  life. 

651.   Why  are.  kirds  of  prey  generally  destitute  of  the  power  of 


The  gift  of  song  would  be  of  no  advantage  to  the  accipetres  ; 
they  generally  live  in  solitary  grandeur,  or  lie  concealed  under 
circumstances  where  musical  notes  would  prove  a  detriment,  as 
serving  to  warn  off  their  victims. 

652.  There  would  appear  to  be  some  connection  in  this  respect  between  the 
ruminating  animals  and  the  song  birds,  as  distinguished  from  the  carnivorous 
mammalia  and  birds  of  prey.  The  voice,  if  any,  of  ruminants  is  gentle,  and  not 
unpleasing,  like  that  of  song-birds;  while  that  of  the  predacious  tribes  of  both 
classes  is  either  disagreeable  or  terrifying.  There  is  something  unamiable, 
at  the  very  least,  about  a  bird  of  prey  which  ill  assorts  with  our  ideas  of  music, 
and  the  warblings  of  the  fields  and  groves.  If  the  gift  of  melody  had  been  at  our 
disposal  we  should  certainly  have  decided  to  withhold  it  from  that  species  .of  being, 
whose  career,  however  necessary  in  the  scale  of  creation,  is  one  of  terror  and 
rapacity.  A  song  from  the  vulture — whatever  might  be  the  extent  of  its  vocal 
powers— would  be  the  last  thing  asked  for.* 

653.  Why  are  some  birds  of  prey  destined  to  eat  carrion  only  ? 
Because  in  doing  this  they  act  as  scavengers  to  the  countries  which 

they  inhabit ;  clearing  the  earth  of  that  carrion  which,  if  suffered 
to  remain,  might  cause  infectious  diseases  among  the  people  of  the 
country. 

654.  An  instance  of  the  manner  in  which  the  carrion  eaters  perform  the  operation 
of  devouring  dead  carcases,  in   obedience    to   their  instincts,  is  affordeu  in  the 
following  description  given  by  the  Naturalist  Wilson: — "A  horse  had  dropped 
iown  in  the  street  in  convulsions,  and  dying,  it  was  dragged  out  to  Hampstead* 

•  Fartiugton'g  "  Cyclopaedia." 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  21.9 


On  his  bosom  sat 


Tv/o  ruftnres,  digging  through  his  carle  of  fat 

Into  his  liver,  with  their  crooked  beaks."— CHAPMAN. 


near  Charleston,  and  skinned.  The  ground  for  a  hundred  yards  around  it  was 
black  with  cart  ion  croics ;  many  sat  on  the  tops  of  sheds,  fences,  and  houses 
within  sight ;  sixty  or  eighty  on  the  opposite  side  of  a  small  run.  I  counted  at 
one  time  two  hundred  and  thirty -seven,  but  I  believe  there  were  more,  besides 
several  in  the  air  over  my  head,  and  at  a  distance.  I  A'enturcd  cautiously  within 
thirty  yards  of  the  carcase,  where  three  or  four  dogs  and  twenty  or  thirty  vultures 
were  busy  tearing  and  devouring.  Seeing  them  take  no  notice  I  ventured  nearer, 
till  I  was  within  ten  yards,  and  sat  down  on  the  bank.  Still  they  paid  little 
attention  to  me.  The  dogs,  being  sometimes  accidentally  flapped  with  the  wings  of 
the  vultures,  would  growl  and  snap  at  them,  which  would  occasion  them  to  spring 
up  for  a  moment,  but  they  immediately  gathered  in  again.  I  remarked  the  vultures 
frequently  attack  each  other,  fighting  with  their  claws  or  heels,  striking  like  a 
cock,  with  open  wings,  and*  fixing  their  claws  in  each  others  heads.  The  females, 
and  I  believe  the  males  likewise,  made  a  hissing  sound,  with  open  mouth,  exactly 
resembling  that  produced  by  thrusting  a  red-hot  poker  into  water,  and  frequently 
a  snuffling  like  a  dog  clearing  his  nostrils,  as  I  suppose  they  were  theirs.  On 
observing  that  they  did  not  heed  me  I  stole  so  close  that  my  feet  were  within  one 
yard  of  the  horse's  legs,  and  again  sat  down.  They  all  slid  aloof  a  few  feet ;  but, 
seeing  me  quiet,  they  soon  returned  as  before.  As  they  were  often  disturbed  by 
the  dogs,  I  ordered  the  latter  home  ;  my  voice  gave  no  alarm  to  the  vultures.  As 
soon  as  the  dogs  departed,  the  vultures  crowded  in  such  numbers,  that  I  counted  at 
one  time  thirty-seven  on  and  around  the  carcase,  with  several  within,  so  that 
scarcely  an  inch  of  it  was  visible.  Sometimes  one  would  come  out  with  a  large 
piece  of  the  entrails,  which  in  a  moment  was  surrounded  by  several  others,  who 
tore  it  in  fragments,  and  it  soon  disappeared.  They  kept  up  the  hissing 
occasionally.  Some  of  them,  having  their  whole  legs  and  heads  covered  with 
blood,  presented  a  most  savage  aspect.  Still,  as  the  dog.s  advanced,  I  would  order 
them  away,  which  seemed  to  gratify  the  vultures ;  and  one  would  pursue  another 
to  within  a  foot  or  two  of  the  spot  where  I  was  sitting.  Sometimes  I  observed 
them  stretching  their  neck  along  the  ground,  as  if  to  press  the  food  downwards." 

655.  Why  is  the  vulture  a  cowardly  bird,  while  the  eagle  is  full 
of  courage  ? 

Because,  while  a  character  of  fearlessness  and  daring  are  proper 
and  necessary  for  the  eagle,  whose  instinct  leads  him  to  attack  live, 
and  often  large  animals,  it  is  in  no  way  required  in  the  case  of  the 
vulture,  contented  as  he  is  to  feed  upon  carrion,  and  seldom 
attacks  his  prey,  until  weakness  or  death  has  rendered  it 
unresisting. 

556.  There  is  a  variety  of  the  vulture  tribe  to  which  these  remarks  do  not  strictly 
apply.  The  bearded  vulture  (Oyptetus  barbatus)  partakes  somewhat  of  the  nature 


220 


THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  Ye  dregs  of  baseness,  vultures  amongst  men, 
That  tyre  upon  the  hearts  of  generous  spirits." 

BEAUMONT  AND  FLETCHEH. 


and  character  of  the  eagle.  Its  appearance  is  less  unpleasing  than  that  of  the 
other  vultures.  It  is  nicer  in  its  food— only  eating  offal  when  it  can  procure 
nothing  better.  It  is  rather  courageous  ;  but  is  less  widely  distributed  than  the 
common  vulture — the  scavengers  of  creation.  The  bearded  vulture  is  limited  to  a 
few  countries. 

I 

657.   Why   are    the    head    and    neck   of  vultures    denuded   of 
feathers  ? 


Because,  by  this  provision^ 
these  parts  are  prevented 
from  being  rendered  foul  by 
the  carrion  with  which  they 
come  in  contact  when  the 
vulture  is  glutting  itself 
with  food.  Instinct  also 
guides  the  vulture  to  fre 
quently  cleanse  its  plumage' 


658.  Wliy  does  the  vulture,  whose  food  is  only  met  with  upon  the 
ground,  soar  to  such  a  height  as  to  be  lost  to  view  ? 

The  prey  of  this  bird  being  offall,  or  carrion,  it  is  of  necessity 
sparely  and  widely  scattered.  The  high  flight  of  the  vulture, 
joined  with  its  wondrous  powers  of  scent  and  vision,  enable  it 
to  take  in  a  very  wide  extent  of  country,  and  the  more  readily  to 
obtain  the  object  of  its  search. 


659.  It  rises  higher  and  higher  till  its  enormous  bulk  is  lost  to  human  view,  but 
though  beyond  the  sphere  of  man's  vision  the  telescopic  eye  of  the  bird  is  at 
work.  Th»  moment  any  animal  sinks  to  earth  in  death,  the  distant  vulture 
detects  it.  When  the  hunter  brings  down  some  large  quadruped  beyond  his 
powers  to  remove,  and  leaves  it  to  obtain  assistance,  on  his  return,  however 
speedy,  he  finds  it  surrounded  with  a  band  of  vultures,  where  not  one  was  to  bo 
quarter  of  an  hour  before. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  22] 


Truth,  which  itself  is  light,  does  darkness  shun, 
And  the  true  eaglet  safely  dares  the  sun." — DIIYDEN. 


600.    Why  is  the  sarcoramphus,  or  king  vulture,  so  called? 

From  the  circumstance  frequently  observed  by  naturalists,  that 
all  other  species  of  vultures  defer  to  it,  giving  it  the  preference  ;  and, 
in  the  case  where  a  number  of  them  have  alighted  upon  a  carcase, 
standing  quietly  by  until  "his  majesty"  has  gorged  himself. 

6G1.  This  is  particularly  related  by  Mr.  Edwards  in  his  "  Voyage  up  the 
Amazon."  That  traveller  accounts  for  the  fact  by  stating  that  the  king  vulture  is 
greatly  superior  to  every  other  species,  both  in  strength  and  courage.  It  has  a  less 
repulsive  appearance,  and  when  caught  has  been  tamed  and  domesticated. 

662.  Why  is  the  eagle  denominated  the  king  of  birds  ? 

Because  it  not  only  possesses  great  size,  strength,  and  courage,  but 
is  in  the  habit  of  soaring  to  a  great  height  in  the  sky  ;  and  of 
frequenting  localities  which  have  a  great  deal  of  wild  grandeur  and 
sublimity  about  them. 

663.  //  hy  have  flying  eagles  little  power  of  attacking  prey  that 
lie  immediately  under  them  ? 

Because  the  eagle  cannot  drop  perpendicularly  upon  its  prey,  but 
always  does  so  in  an  oblique  curve,  by  means  of  which  it  both 
delivers  its  whole  impetus  upon  the  prey,  and  prevents  unpleasant 
collision  with  the  ground. 

664.  The  following  description  of  the  white-headed  eagle  is  given  by  Audubon, 
the  celebrated  naturalist  • — "  The  eagle  is  seen  perched,  in  an  erect  attitude,  on  the 
highest  summit  of  the  tallest  tree,  by  the  margin  of  the  broad  stream ;  his 
glistening  but  stern  eye  looks  over  the  vast  expanse.  lie  listens  attentively  to  every 
sound  that  comes  to  his  quick  ear  from  afar,  glancing  now  and  then  on  the  earth 
beneath,  lest  even  the  light  tread  of  the  fawn  should  pass  unheard;  his  mate  is 
perched  on  the  opposite  side,  and  should  all  be  tranquil  and  silent,  warns  him  by 
a  cry  to  continue  patient.  At  this  well-known  call  the  male  partly  opens  his  broad 
wings,  inclines  his  body  a  little  downwards,  and  answers  to  her  voice  in  tones 
not  unlike  the  laugh  of  a  maniac.  The  next  moment  he  resumes  his  erect 
attitude,  and  again  all  around  is  silent.  Ducks  of  many  species,  the  teal,  the 
widgeon,  the  mallard,  and  others,  are  seen  passing  with  great  rapidity,  and  following 
the  course  of  the  current;  but  the  eagle  heeds  them  not;  they  are  at  that  time 
beneath  his  notice.  The  next  moment,  however,  the  wild,  trumpet-like  sound  of  a 
yet  distant,  but  approaching  swan  is  heard.  A  shriek  from  the  female  eagle  comes 
across  the  stream,  for  she  is  as  fully  alert  as  her  mate.  The  latter  suddenly  shakes 


THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  We  think  tlie  rarile-tpinge.d  pride 

Of  sky-aspiring  and  ambitious  thoughts, 
With rival-hating  envy,  set  you  on 
To  wake  our  peace."     SHAKSPKUK. 

the  whole  of  his  body,  and  with  a  few  touches  of  his  bill,  aided  by  the  action  of  his 
cutijular  muscles,  arranges  his  plumage  in  an  instant.  The  snow-white  bird  is  now  in 
signt,  her  long  neck  is  stretched  forward  ;  her  eye  is  on  the  watch,  vigilant  as  that 
of  her  enemy  ;  her  large  wings  seem  with  difficulty  to  support  the  weight  of  ha 
body,  although  they  flap  incessantly.  So  irksome  do  her  exertions  seem,  that  her 
very  legs  are  spread  beneath  her  tail  to  aid  her  in  her  flight.  She  approaches, 
however.  The  eagle  lias  marked  her  for  his  prey.  As  the  swan  is  passing  the 
dreaded  pair,  the  male  bird  starts  from  his  perch,  in  full  preparation  for  the  chase, 
with  an  awful  scream,  that  to  the  swan's  ear  brings  more  terror  than  the  report  of 
a  large  duck-gun. 

"  Now  is  tlie  morrent  to  witness  the  display  of  the  eagle's  powers.  He  glides 
through  the  air  like  a  falling  star,  and,  like  a  flash  of  lightning,  comes  upon  the 
timorous  quarry,  which  now,  in  agony  and  despair,  seeks,  by  various  mano?nvres, 
to  elude  the  prasp  of  his  cruel  talons.  It  mounts,  doubles,  and  would  willingly 
plunge  into  t je  stream,  were  it  not  prevented  by  the  eagle,  which,  long  possessed 
of  the  knowledge  that  by  such  a  stratagem  the  swan  might  escape  him,  forces  it  to 
remain  in  the  air  by  striking  it  with  his  talons  from  beneath.  The  hope  of  escape 
is  soon  given  up  by  the  swan.  It  has  already  become  much  weakened,  and  its 
strength  fails  at  the  sight  of  the  courage  and"  swiftness  of  its  antagonist.  Its  last 
gasp  is  about  to  escape,  when  the  ferocious  eagle  strikes  with  his  talons  the  under 
side  of  its  wing,  and  with  irresistible  power  forces  the  bird  to  fall  in  a  slanting 
direction  upon  the  nearest  shore. 

"  It  is  then  that  the  cruel  spirit  of  this  dreaded  enemy  of  the  feathered  race  may 
be  seen ;  whilst  exulting  over  his  prey,  he  for  the  first  time  breathes  with  ease.  He 
presses  down  his  powerful  feet,  and  drives  his  sharp  claws  deeper  than  ever  into 
the  heart  of  the  dying  swan.  He  shrieks  with  delight  as  he  feels  the  last 
convulsions  of  his  prey,  which  has  now  sunk  under  his  unceasing  efforts  to  render 
death  as  painfully  felt  as  it  can  possibly  be.  The  female  has  watched  every 
movement  of  her  mate  ;  and  if  she  did  not  assist  him  in  capturing  the  swan,  it  was 
not  from  want  of  will,  but  merely  that  she  felt  full  assurance  that  the  power 
and  courage  of  her  lord  were  quite  sufficient  for  the  deed.  She  now  sails  to  the 
spot  where  he  eagerly  waits  her,  and,  when  she  has  arrived,  they  together  turn  the 
breast  of  the  luckless  swan  upwards,  and  fill  themselves  with  gore  " 


665.  Why  are  an  eagle  and  a  fish  sometimes  found  deadt  and 
tightly  fastened  together  on  the  sea-shore  f 

Because  the  bird  on  these  occasions  has  struck  its  talons  with  such 
force  into  its  prey  that  it  cannot  extricate  them  ;  and  the  weight  of 
the  fish  proving  too  heavy,  the  eagle  is  dragged  down  under  the 
waves  of  the  sea,  and  thus  drowned. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  223 


JEt/e-tHHf/ht  how  them  dost  me  deliver 

My  endlcsse  ;id  and  comfort-giver." — SIR  P.  SIDNEY. 


666.  Why  are  the  eyes  of  eagles  furnished  with  nictating 
membranes  ? 

Because  sight  is  the  chief  sense  upon  which  eagles  depend  for 
their  supply  of  food  ;  and  in  order  to  retain  this  organ  as  perfect  as 
possible,  nature  has  accommodated  it  with  this  provision,  which  not 
only  tends  to  keep  the  eyes  clean,  but  also  shields  them  from  strong 
light  when  in  sunny  altitudes,  and  renders  them  more  sensitive  of 
that  reflected  from  below. 


667.  The  nictating  membrane,  which  has  already  been  repeatedly  mentioned,  is  a 
most  curious  apparatus,  with  which  animals  of  very  opposite  natures  are  endowed, 
but  all  of  which  have  their  eyes  liable  to  certain  conditions  that  render  the  pro 
tection  afforded  by  this  curious  organ  absolutely  essential.  The  organ  consists  of 
a  thin  semi-transparent  membrane,  which,  when  at  rest,  lies  in  the  inner  corner  of 
the  eye,  folded  up  like  a  drawn  eu'-taia.  By  the  combined  action  of  two  muscles, 
it  is  capable  of  being  drawn  out,  so  us  to  cover  the  whole  front  of  the  eye-ball,  like 
a  curtain .  and  its  own  elasticity  restores  it  to  the  corner  in  which  it  previously 
rested.  The  action  of  this  beautiful  membrane  is  very  instantaneous.  Wherevei 
there  are  zoological  gardens,  it  may  be  observed  with  great  effect  in  the  eyes  of  tht 
Great  South  American  Eagle. 

This  membrane  is  also  found  in  the  eyes  of  most  quadrupeds,  birds,  and  fishes  , 
but  its  development  and  use  are  beautifully  proportioned  to  the  necessities  of  each 
animal.  It  is  largely  developed,  as  already  stated,  in  those  birds  of  prey  which 
seek  sunny  altitudes,  and  are  said  to  "  gaze  at  the  sun."  When  thus  apparently 
gazing  upward  from  their  rocky  heights,  the  membrane  is  probably  drawn,  to  modify 
the  force  of  the  intense  rays. 

It  is  found,  also,  in  the  camel  and  the  ostrich,  because  those  aninv  .s,  being 
frequenters  of  the  sandy  deserts,  are  liable  to  have  their  eyes  injured  y  clouds 
of  sand. 

Many  animals  that  obtain  their  food  by  pushing  their  heads  among  c  ranches  of 
trees,  bushes,  rushes,  and  grass,  are  also  provided  with  it. 

.j  .s  also  found  in  fishes,  which,  having  no  eye-lids,  because  moisture  is  abun 
dantly  supplied  to  their  eyes  by  the  element  in  which  they  live,  yet  need  an 
occasional  protection  from  sea-clouds  of  sand,  and  drifting  marine  vegetation  ;  and 
also  from  excess  of  light,  when  they  approach  the  surface,  quitting  the  depths 
where  the  light  is  greatly  modified. 

Man  has  no  such  membrane,  because  he  has  no  occasion  to  thrust  his  head  into 
places  which  endanger  his  eyes  ;  an  d  when,  in  pursuit  of  sport,  he  enters  the  woods 
and  jungles,  he  is  able,  by  the  momentary  application  of  his  hands,  to  guard  LJ 
eyes  from  Injury. 


224  THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  With  ivingy  speed  outstrip  the  eastern  wind, 
And  leave  the  breezes  of  the  mom  behind." — ADWSON. 


668.  Why  do  eagles  drive  away  their  young  ? 

Because,  as  these  birds  subsist  by  prey,  they  would  soon 
produce  a  famine  among  their  race  did  many  of  them  dwell  ra 
the  same  district.  Therefore,  the  old  birds  drive  aivay  their 
young  at  a  certain  age  from  their  boundaries. 

669.  Why  are  the  wings  of  eagles  broad,  and  hollow  in  their 
under  surfaces? 

Because  the  eagle,  when  in  search  of  its  prey,  floats  in  the  air 
until  its  kaen  eye  discovers  that  of  which  it  is  in  quest ;  by  this 
peculiarity  of  structure,  therefore,  the  wings  can  take  a  more 
powerful  hold  on  the  air,  and  the  whole  body  is  enabled  to  float 
with  little  labour. 

670.  Why  are  the  wings  of  the  eagle,  though  powerful,  shorter 
than  those  of  the  falcon,  both  being  birds  of  prey  ? 

Because  falcons  catch  their  prey  while  on  the  wing,  and  therefore 
have  the  faculty  of  rapid  and  uninterrupted  flight ;  but  the  eagle 
strikes  its  victim  to  the  ground,  or  the  waters,  and  aftenvards  rises 
ivith  it,  thus  requiring  strengthin  a  greater  degree  than  rapidity. 

671.  Why,  in  the  eye  of  the  falcon,  crane,  and  other  birds  of 
pieiving  sight,  has  the  flattened  optic  nerve   one  of  its  branches 
folded  info  numerous  plaits  ? 

By  this  arrangement,  the  extent  of  surface  is  considerably 
augmented,  and  the  powers  of  vision  proportionally  increased. 

672.  Why  are  the   eyes  of  birds  and  animals  who  seek  their 
prey  by  night,  or  in  the  dark,  larger  than  those  of  other  animals  ? 

Because  the  large  eye  of  the  nocturnal  animal  admitting  more 
light,  and  taking  in  a  wider  field  of  view  than  a  small  one,  enable* 
the  animal  to  find  the  object  of  its  search  more  readily. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  225 


"  Tt  was  the  owl  that  shrick'd,  the  fatal  bellman,  which  gives 
the  stern'st  good  night." — SIIAKSPKUE. 


673.  Animals  that  depend  chiefly  upon  the  eye,  and  especially  if  they  be  fenders 
in  the  night,  or  in  places  to  which  little  light  can  come,  invariably  have  the  eyes 
very  large.  This  is  the  case  with  owls,  and  other  nocturnal  birds.  The  same  law 
is  observed  even  in  connexion  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  sea.  The  surface  Jishet 
usually  have  the  eyes  small;  and  they  get  gradually  larger,  till,  when  we 
come  to  those  which  inhabit  the  depths,  and  yet  are  active,  feeding  upon  other 
fishes,  their  eyes  are  very  large — of  which  we  have  an  example  in  the  star-gazers. 

674.  Why  are,  the,  eyes  of  nocturnal  birds  placed  nearer  to  each 
other  than  the  eyes  of  birds  which  fly  by   day  ? 

Because,  with  nocturnal  birds,  the  design  is  that  they  should 
have  the  light  concentrated  in  front  of  them,  in  order  that  they  may 
avoid  flying  against  obstacles,  which,  under  a  different  arrangement, 
they  would  inevitably  do  in  the  darkness  of  the  night. 

But  in  birds  that  fly  by  day,  their  range  being  of  greater  extent, 
it  is  intended  to  render  their  vision  effective  c^er  as  great  an  area 
as  possible,  that  they  may  command  the  expanse  around  them. 

675.  Why  has  the  eye  of  the  owl  and  other  nocturnal  birds  a 
shining  substance  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the  eyeball  ? 

Because  this  substance,  by  reflecting  the  ray*,  of  light,  endows 
the  eye  with  power  to  distinguish  objects  in  th?  dark. 

676.  Why  are  owls  enabled  to  turn  their  heads  mind  in  almost 
a  complete  circle  without  moving  their  bodies  ? 

The  owl  has  been  gifted  with  this  capability  in  order  to 
compensate  for  the  absence  of  motion  in  the  eye,  the  globe  of  which 
is  immoveably  fixed  in  its  socket  by  a  strong  elastic  hard 
cartilaginous  case,  in  form  of  a  truncated  cone. 

677.  Why  is  the   head  of  the  owl  so  disproportionately  large  f 

This  is  partly  duo  to  the  looseness  of  the  plumage  by  which  it  is 
covered     and  is  further  caused  by  the  existence,  between  t^e  i*rrw 
10* 


22(j  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  Ye  solemn  warblers  of  the  gloomy  night, 

That  rest  in  lightning— blasted  oaks  the  day, 
Thro'  the  black  mantles  take  your  slow-pac'd  flight, 
Rending  the  silent  wood  with  shrieking  lay." — CHATTERTON. 

and  outer  tables  (or  bony  layers)  of  the  skull,  of  a  number  of  large 
cells,  which  communicate  with  the  organ  of  hearing,  and  render 
that  sense  more  acute. 


678.  We  find  in  owls  an  external  ear,  or  conch,  which  exists  in  no  other  birds ; 
this  is  concealed  by  the  feathers,  which  are  arranged  in  a  sort  of  hollow  cone  around  it, 
and,  in  some  species,  it  is  covered  with  a  sort  of  lid,  which  the  bird  has  the  power 
of  opening  or  closing  at  pleasure. 

679.    IVliy  do  owls  possess  feeble  powers  of  flight  ? 

Because  they  are  not  intended  to  obtain  their  prey  by  swiftness 
of  pursuit,  but  by  the  stealthiness  of  their  approach  ;  and  the 
remarkable  powers  of  other  functions  are  therefore  counterbalanced 
by  the  comparative  incapacity  of  this  particular  one. 

680.  From  the  nature  of  their  food,  which  is  chiefly  the  different  species  of  mice 
and  other  small  and  destructive  quadrupeds,  of  which  they  capture  vast  numbers, 
owls  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  serviceable  of  wild  birds ;  and  those  species  which 
are  of  the  greatest  use  are  so  far  from  timid  or  retiring  in  their  manner,  that  they 
-esort  to  farm-yards,  barns,  and  other  places,  and  perform  their  services  even  iu 
spite  of  the  persecutions  which  they  meet  with  from  the  thoughtless. 

681.  WTiy  is  the  plumage  of  nocturnal   birds  of  prey  tapered 
off  to  a  fine  and  soft  point  ? 

Because  this  structure  enables  them  to  glide  noiselessly  through 
the  air,  and  even  among  the  leaves  and  sprays  of  the  thick  forests, 
without  disturbing  their  prey. 

682.  Why  are  the  wings  of  the  serpent-eater,  or  secretary  bird, 
with  hard  points  ? 


Because  in  attacking  serpents,  it  covers  its  breast  with  one  wing 
as  a  shield,  to  protect  itself  from  the  bite  of  the  reptile,  and  strikes 
at  his  victim  with  the  other — the  two  wings  thus  acting  as  a  shield 
and  spear.  Then,  after  breaking  the  cranium  with  its  beak,  the 


NATURAL    HISTOIir.  227 


"  The  hosts  of  birds,  that  wing  the  liquid  air 

Percli'd  in  the  boughs,  had  nightly  lodgings  there." — DRYDEN. 


bird  devours  the  serpent.  This  is  the  manner  in  which  large  and 
venomous  serpents  are  killed  ;  but  the  bird  frequently  swallows 
non-venomous  snakes  alive. 


683.  The  secretary  bird  destroys  serpents,  rats,  and  vermin,  and  is  on  that  account 
much  esteemed  in  the  southern  parts  of  Africa,  which  abounds  with  venomous 
serpents,  snakes,  scorpions,  and  noxious  reptiles,  also  with  lizards  of  many 
descriptions ;  the  land-tortoise,  grylloc,  or  locusts,  in  variety,  abundance,  and 
depredation  equalling  their  destructive  hosts  in  other  countries.  Barrow  relates  a 
very  curious  circumstance  respecting  living  serpents  in  the  stomach  of  one  of  thest 
bii-ds  after  death.  An  English  gentleman,  who  held  an  official  situation  at  the  Cape, 
being  out  on  a  shooting  party,  killed  a  secretary  bird,  which  he  carried  home  with 
the  intention  of  having  an  accurate  drawing  made  from  it.  He  threw  it  on  the  floor 
of  the  balcony  near  the  house,  when,  after  it  had  remained  some  time,  and  been 
examined  and  tossed  about,  one  of  the  company  observed  a  large  snake  pushing 
open  the  beak,  out  of  which  he  speedily  crawled  in  perfect  vigour,  and  free  from 
any  injury.  On  the  supposition  that  others  might  be  in  the  stomach,  the  bird  was 
suspended  by  the  legs,  and  presently  a  second  made  its  appearence,  as  large  and 
as  lively  as  the  first.  The  bird  was  afterwards  open,  when  the  stomach  was  found 
to  contain  seven  dead  snakes,  with  a  half-digested  mass  of  lizards,  scorpions, 
Bcolopendrae,  centipedes,  and  beetles. 


ORDER   II.— INCESSORES. 

684.   Why  arc,  the  incessores  so  named  ? 

From  their  classification  as  perching  birds  :  the  word  incessores 
being  derived  from  insideo,  to  lie  in  ambush  ;  indicating  that 
the  proper  habitat  of  the  order,  with  its  sub-orders,  is  a  bush 
or  tree. 


685.  They  are  also  called  passcres  or  passerine  birds,  from  passer,  "  a  sparrow," 
to  which  bird  the  greater  number  of  incessores  bear  a  strong  resemblance. 
In  all  the  true  incessorial  birds,  the  toes  are  three  before  and  one  behind. 
The  adaptation  of  the  foot  to  grasping  or  perching  is  evident  from  the  situation 
of  the  hinder  toe,  which  is  invariably  placed  on  the  same  level  with  those  in 
front,  and  by  which  they  are  distinguished  from  the  rasores  (scrapers)  and 
^llatores  (waders).  The  toes  are  slender,  flexible,  and  of  moderate  length; 
the  foot  of  the  canary  affords  a  very  good  example.  The  incessore» 
ih  on  the  wing  ;  their  legs  are  therefore  much  less  developed  than  tbos« 


228 


THE    REASON    WHY  I 


1  Better's  the  place,  though  homely  and  obscure, 
Where  we  repose  in  safety  and  secure 
Than  where  great  birds  with  lordly  talons  siexe, 
Not  what  they  ought,  but  what  their  fancies  please." — DRAYTON. 


organs.  The  male  bird  surpasses  the  female  in  size,  plumage,  and  song; 
they  live  in  pairs,  and  construct  their  nests  in  bushes,  trees,  &c.,  with 
wonderful  art. 


The  feet  of  birds  present  very 
distinctive  marks  for  observation. 
In  most  species  the  toes  are  four 
in  number,  and  in  the  majority 
of  these  three  are  directed  forward, 
and  one  turned  back.  This  is  the 
case  with  the  eagle,  1,  and  falcon, 
2;  the  toes  in  these  and  other 
birds  of  prey  being  pointed  with 
long,  curved,  and  sharp  talons. 
The  woodpecker  has  two  forward 
and  two  backward  toes,  3;  so  also 
has  the  parrot.  The  niaht-jar  has 
three  forward  toes,  one  of  which 
is  extended  to  a  considerable 
length,  4.  The  swift  has  all  toes 
forward,  5 ;  it  clings  with  them  to 
walls  and  cliffs.  Larks  have  the 
backward  claw  long  and  slender,  6. 
The  ostrich  has  only  two  toes  7 ; 
Domestic  fowls,  and  others  of  the  same 


the  ca  suivari/  has  three,  all  in  front, 
family,  have  four  toes,  and  a  spur. 


The  order  INCESSORES  is  by  many  naturalists  divided  into 
five  sub-orders :  1.  Dentirostres ;  2.  Fissirostres  ;  3.  Conirostres ; 
4,  Tenuirostrts;  5.  fiynd-actyli. 

dub-  Order  1 . — Dentirostres. 


686.   Why  is  the  first  sub-order  named  dentirostres  ? 

Dentirostres  signifies  tooth-billed:  from  dens,  a  "tooth,"  and 
rostrum,  a  "beak;"  this  tribe  of  birds  being  characterised  by 
having  a  notch  and  tooth-like  process  on  each  side  of  the  margin 
of  the  upper  mandible.  This  renders  them  capable  of  attacking 
other  birds  ;  and  they  are  accordingly  predacious.  The  shrike, 
or  butcher-bird,  is  the  most  formidable  specimen  of  the 
sub- order. 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  229 

"  'Let's  meete,'  quoth  Echo  mockingly: 

Which,  heaving,  he  with  speed, 
(Believed  that  his  shadow  was 
A  nymph,  and  spake  indeed)." — WARNER. 

687.    Why  is   the  great  grey  shrike  called  the  sentinel  ? 

It  was  thus  named  by  Linneus,  from  its  habit  of  sitting  like  a 
sentry  in  an  unconcealed  manner  near  its  nest,  either  watching 
for  its  prey  or  on  the  alert  against  danger. 

688.  The  shrike,  or  butcher  bird,  as  it  is  frequently  called,  is  generally  dreaded  by 
the  lesser  birds.  They,  however,  occasionally  unite  against  it,  and  drive  it  by 
clamour  and  mobbing  from  a  cheYished  neighbourhood.  But  although  a  predatory 
bird,  it  has  good  qualities ;  it  is  fond  of  its  young,  in  whose  defence  it  has  been 
known  to  attack  the  hawk,  and  even  the  eagle. 

689.  Why  is  the  shrike  called  the  "  butcher-bird  ? " 

This  bird  has  the  singular  habit  of  sticking  the  remains  of 
its  prey,  and  sometimes  the  entire  prey,  upon  the  twigs  of  shrubs 
in  the  hedges.  His  reason  for  doing  so  has  given  rise  to  various 
conjectures,  the  most  probable  of  which  is,  that  it  is  for  the 
purpose  of  attracting  other  prey ;  for  when  the  trophies  of 
its  previous  capture  are  thus  exhibited  upon  the  hedge,  the  shrike 
itself  may  often  be  observed  beating  about  until  some  smaller 
bird  comes  to  peck  at  the  bait ;  and  then  the  shrike  drops  down 
and  preys  upon  the  bird  thus  ensnared. 

690.  Why  is  the  mocking-bird  so  called? 

Because  it  can  imitate  with  the  greatest  ease  and  fidelity 
not  only  the  songs  of  other  birds,  but  the  sounds  and  cries  of 
animals  and  the  barking  of  a  dog,  the  mewing  of  a  cat,  &c. 
It  even  carries  its  imitative  powers  to  inanimate  objects,  such 
as  the  grating  of  a  grindstone,  and  the  rushing  of  a  torrent 
of  water. 

691.  The  mocking-bird  loses  little  of  the  power  arc!  energy  of  his  song  by  coi.» 

finement.    In  his  domesticated  slate,  when  he  commences  his  career  of  song,  it  is 

impossible  to  stand  by  uninterested.     He  whistles  for  the  dog ;  Caesar  starts  up, 

wags  his  tail,  and  runs  to  meet  his  master.    He  squeaks  out  like  a  hurt  chicken, 

and  the  hen  hurries  about  with  hanging  wings    and   bristled   feathers,  clucking 

protect  its  injured  brood.     The  barking   of   the   dog,  the  mewing  of  the  cat, 

Breaking  of  a   passing   wheelbarrow,  follow  with  great   truth   and  rapidity. 


230  THE    REASON    WHY  : 

"  More  happy !   laid  where  trees  with  trees  eiitwin'd 
In  bowery  arches  tremble  to  the  wind, 
With  innocence  and  shade  like  Adam  blest, 
While  a  new  Eden  opens  in  the  breast." — BKOOMK. 

He  repeats  the  tune  taught  him  by  his  master,  though  of  considerable  length, 
fully  and  faithfully.  He  runs  over  the  quaverings  of  the  canary,  and  the  clear 
whistling  of  the  Virginia  nightingale  or  red-bird,  with  such  superior  execution 
and  effect,  that  the  mortified  songsters  feel  their  own  inferiority,  and  becoir.e 
altogether  silent;  while  he  seems  to  triumph  in  their  defeat  by  redoubling  his 
exertions. 

This  excessive  fondness  for  variety,  however,  in  the  opinion  of  some,  injures 
his  song.  His  elevated  imitations  of  the  brown  thrush  are  frequently  interrupted 
by  the  crowing  of  cocks  ;  and  the  warblings  of  the  blue-bird,  which  he  exquisitely 
manages,  are  mingled  with  the  screaming  of  s\»  allows  or  the  cackling  of  hens ; 
amidst  the  simple  melody  of  the  robin  we  are  suddenly  surprised  by  the  shrill 
reiterations  of  the  whip-poor-will ;  while  the  notes  of  the  kildeer,  the  blue  jay, 
martin,  baltioore,  and  twenty  others,  succeed  with  such  imposing  reality,  that 
we  look  around  for  the  originals,  and  discover  with  astonishment  that  the  sole 
performer  in  this  singular  concert  is  the  admirable  bird  now  before  us. 
During  this  exhibition  of  his  powers  he  spreads  his  wings,  expands  his  tail, 
and  throws  himself  around  the  cage  in  all  the  ecstasy  of  enthusiasm,  seeming 
not  only  to  sing,  but  to  dance,  keeping  time  to  the  measure  of  his  own  music. 
Both  in  his  native  and  domesticated  state,  during  the  solemn  stillness  of  night,  as 
soon  as  the  moon  rises  in  silent  majesty,  he  begins  his  delightful  solo ;  and 
serenades  us  the  livelong  night  with  a  full  display  of  his  vocal  powers,  making 
the  whole  neighbourhood  ring  with  his  inimitable  melody. 

692.   Why  is  the  bower-bird  so  called  ? 

From  a  singular  habit  which  it  has  of  forming  for  itself  and  its 
immediate  associates  of  the  same  species  a  bower-like  structure,  for 
die  purpose  of  a  playing  ground,  »r  place  of  assembly. 

693.  One  of  the  extraordinary  buildings  of  the  bower-bird  is  thus  described  by 
Mr.  Gould  in  his  "  Birds  of  Australia"  : — 

"  The  bower  is  usually  placed  under  the  shelter  of  the  branches  of  some  over 
hanging  tree  in  the  most  retired  part  of  the  forest ;  the  base  consists  of  an  extensive 
and  rather  convex  platform  of  sticks  firmly  interwoven,  on  the  'centre  of  which  the 
bower  itself  is  built ;  this  like  the  platform  on  which  it  is  placed,  and  with  which 
it  is  interwoven,  is  formed  of  sticks  and  twigs,  but  of  a  more  tender  and  flexible 
description  ;  the  tips  of  the  twigs  being  so  arranged  as  to  curve  inwards,  and  nearly 
meet  at  the  top.  In  the  interior  of  the  bower,  the  materials  are  so  placed  that  the 
forks  of  the  twigs  are  always  presented  outwards,  by  which  arrangement  not  the 
slightest  obstruction  is  offered  to  the  passage  of  the  birds.  The  bower  is  used  as  a 
place  o1'  resort  for  many  individuals  of  both  sexes,  which,  when  there  assembled, 
•un  thi  ough  und  around  it  in  a  sportive  and  playful  manner,  and  that  so  frequently 
lliat  it  is  seldom  entirely  deserted." 


flATUUAL    HISTORY.  231 


'  Some  to  the  holly  hedge 
Nestling  repair,  and  to  the  thicket  some ; 
Some  t.)  the  rude  protection  of  the  thorn 
Commit  their  feeble  offspring." — THOMSON. 

^xvyvxvxx^x/^x^ywv^xyvrs^wxw/xxx^wN/vxwxyNx^x 

694.   Why  is  the  cat-bird  so  named  ? 


From  its  voice,  which  closely  resembles  at  times  the  mewing 
of  a  young  cat. 


695.  Wilson,  the  American  ornithologist,  says : — "  In  spring  and  summer,  on 
approaching  thickets,  or  brambles,  the  first  salutation  you  receive  is  from  the  cat 
bird  ;  and  a  stranger  unacquainted  with  its  note  would  instantly  conclude  that  some 
vagrant  orphan  kitten  had  got  bewildered  among  the  briars,  and  wanted  assistance ;  so 
exactly  does  the  call  of  the  bird  resemble  the  voice  of  that  animal."  Other  circum 
stances  lend  a  claim  to  the  title.  The  cat-bird  is  more  familiar  with  man  than  any 
other  of  the  passerine  order  :  building  its  nest  in  gardens,  and  courting  the 
familiarity  of  its  owner,  whom  he  salutes  as  he  approaches. 

696.   Why  is  the  tailor-bird  so  named  ? 


From  a  remarkable  habit  of  sewing  leaves  together 
with  threads  or  veg  stable  fibres  in  the  construction 
of  its  nest. 

697.  When  the  tailor-bird  has  selected  a  branch  for  the  site  of  its 
nest,  it  procures  a  dead  leaf,  which  it  sews  on  to  one  still  pendent 
and  Hving ;  thus  a  pocket  or  bag  is  made,  within  which  its  nest  is 
arranged.  The  thread  used  by  the  tailor-bird  has  been  sometimes 
found  actually  knotted  at  the  end.  Colonel  Sykes  has  described 
the  nest  of  an  Indian  variety  of  this  bird  with  great  minutene*j 
He  states  that  the  nest  thus  secured  is  safe  from  the  depredations 
of  reptiles  and  monkeys. 

698.  Why  does  the  wren  make  several  nests,  and  then  leave 
them  when  nearly  finished,  completing  and  using  only  one  ? 

It  has  been  supposed  by  some  that  these  are  the  work  of  the 
male  bird  during  the  incubation  of  the  female,  who  labours  thus 
for  the  sake  of  occupation. 

Other  naturalists  conjecture  that  these  are  deceptive  nests, 
calculated  to  lead  to  the  supposition  that  the  birds  have 
accomplished  their  task  and  retired  ;  and,  therefore,  that  further 
search  is  useless. 


232 


THE   REASON   WHY  : 


Among  the  dwellings  framed  by  birds 
In  lidd  or  forest  with  nice  care, 

Is  none  that  with  the  little  wren's 

In  snugness  may  compare." — WORDSWORTH. 


699.  Why  is  the  material  composing  the  exterior  of  the  wren'i 
nest  varied  according  to  the  colour  of  the  substance  against 
which  the  nest  is  built  ? 


Because  by  this  means  the  nest  is 
rendered  undistinguishable  from  the 
surrounding  objects,  and  thus  best 
answers  the  purposes  of  concealment. 
If  the  nest  is  placed  amongst  ivy,  it  is 
usually  constructed  of  green  moss  ;  but 
if  erected  contiguous  to  some  light- 
coloured  branches,  it  will  then  be  formed 
of  grey  lichens. 


700.  Beautiful  and  elaborate  is  the  structure  of  this  tenement,  which  is  generally 
placed  in  the  middle  of  a  bush,  whose  whole  contracted  stems  and  branches  are 
covere.1  with  tufts  of  many-coloured  lichens.  To  these  branches  it  is  not  only  so 
assimilated  as  to  seem  of  natural  growth,  but  is  so  firmly  connected  as  to  render  its 
disengagement  impossible,  unless  by  destroying  its  form  and  aspect.  To  obtain  if 
perfect,  the  branches  must  be  cut  away,  with  the  nest  undisturbed.  Other  site*1  are 
occasionally  chosen,  but  in  every  instance  the  nest  is  so  artfully  hidden  as  to  elude 
a  casual  glance. 

The  art  of  concocting  nests  so  as  to  protect  them  from  depredation  appears  to 
be  perfectly  well  understood  by  some  species  of  birds.  No  British  bird  conceals 

its  nest  more  effectually  than  the  water 
ouzel,  a  bird  common  along  our  trout 
streams,  especially  where  they  wind 
through  rock-girt  dales  and  glens.  The 
nest  of  this  bird  may  be  sometimes  dis 
covered  in  the  fissure  of  a  low  jutting 
crag,  or  block  of  stone,  projecting  over 
the  rushing  and  bubbling  current,  some 
times  in  a  crevice  on  the  face  of  a  rock, 
over  which  tumbles  a  cascade,  the  spray 
throwing  a  veil  around  the  spot ;  some 
times  between  the  rude  stones  of  a 
ruined  bridge,  or  of  a  tenantless  and  dila 
pidated  water-mill  long  since  deserted. 
Wherever  it  is  situated,  the  nest  blends  undistinguishably  with  the  delicate  minute 
ferns,  the  moss  and  lichen,  which  fill  up  every  chink,  peep  from  every  fissure,  and 
jjive  a  picturesque  t>ne  of  mingled  tints  to  the  humid  face  of  the  grey  limestone. 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


"  Half  afraid,  the  robin  first 
Against  the  window  beats  ;    then  brisk,  alights 
On  the  -warm  hearth  ;   then  hopping  o'er  the  floor, 
Eyes  all  the  smiling  family  askance." — THOMSON. 

The  nest  itself  is  of  a  large  size,  and  of  a  domed  figure,  with  a  small  aperture  on  it* 
side.  This  aperture,  from  the  nature  of  the  materials  of  which  the  structure  is 
composed,  yields  to  the  passage  of  the  bird,  and  then  closes  so  as  to  be  scarcely 
disccrnable.  Externally,  the  nest  consists  of  interwoven  mosses  and  lichens,  having 
an  internal  lining  of  dried  vegetable  fibres.  Of  a  similar  character  as  to  details,  but 
differing  in  its  site,  is  the  nest  of  the  long-tailed  titmouse. 

701.   Why  is  the  redbreast  a  solitary  bird  ? 

Because,  not  being  migratory,  but  remaining  in  the  same 
neighbourhoods  the  whole  year  round,  an  instinct  teaches  it  that 
a  sufficient  supply  of  food  is  better  secured  by  individual  than 
°y  gregarious  search. 

702.  The  redbreast  is  very  attentive  to  its  mate  and  rising  brood,  but  in  order,  it 
would  seem,  to  enforce  the  character  of  separativeness  upon  its  species,  lives  in  a 
constant  state  of  hostility  with  its  own  tribe.  The  ancient  writers  were  aware 
of  this  peculiarity  of  the  redbreast,  hence  the  line — 

"  A  hush  contains  but  one  robin." 


703.  Why   is   the   robin    the    latest    bird    in    retiring    in    the 
evening  ? 

Because  it  possesses  large  strong  eyes,  which  adapt  themselves 

to  the  weakest  rays  of  light.  This  bird  lives  partly  upon  worms, 

and   is,   therefore,    enabled  to    catch  those    that   venture    forth 
at  dusk. 

704.  Why  are  robins  called  autumnal  songsters,  although  they 
sing  throughout  all  the  year  ? 

Because  in  the  spring  and  summer,  when  birds  generally 
warble,  the  voice  of  the  robin  is  drowned  in  the  general  chorus  t 
but  in  the  autumn,  when  most  birds  have  ceased  to  sing,  the 
song  of  the  robin  becomes  more  remarkable.  Besides,  many  of 
the  robins  that  sing  in  the  autumn  are  the  male  redbreasts  of  tLe 
same  year,  which  increase  the  number  of  warblers.* 

•  White's  "  Sclbourne." 


THE    REASON 


"  The  thrush 

And  woodlark,  o'er  the  kind-contending  throng 
Superior  heard,  run  thro'  the  sweetest  length  of  notes." 

THOMSON. 

705.  Why  has  the  ivren  been  associated  in  nursery  literature 
with  the  redbreast  ? 

The  habits  of  the  wren  being  very  similar  to  those  of  the  robin, 
its  anti-migratory  character,  its  familiar  bearing  towards  man, 
and  particularly  its  practice  of  paying  him  an  annual  wintei- 
visit,  may  have  led  to  this  association. 

706.  The  tiny  fairy-like  form  of  the  wren  would  also,  with  children,  render  it  an 
appropriate  consort  for  the  smart  vivacious  "  robin."  The  loves  and  woes  of  the 
Batter  in  connection  with  "jenny  wren"  are,  however,  too  precious  a  legacy  for 
the  mind  of  childhood  for  science  rudely  to  interfere  with. 

707.  Why  do   wagtails  and  other   birds   frequently  congregate 
about  the  feet  of  cows  when  tJiose  animals  are  feeding  in  moist 
low  pastures  ? 

They  do  this  for  the  purpose  of  availing  themselves  of  the  flies 
which  settle  on  the  animals'  legs,  and  also  to  pick  up  the  worms 
and  larvae  that  are  roused  by  the  trampling  of  the  cows'  feet. 

708.  Why  do   missel    thrushes  at    times   prefer  building  their 
nests  near  house    and  in  frequented  garden  ivalks? 

Because  the  magpies  destroy  tlu  broods  of  missel  thrushes 
whenever  they  can  make  their  way  to  them,  so  that  the  latter 
build  in  the  neighbourhood  of  frequented  places  by  way  of 
protection.  The  favourite  haunt  of  the  missel  thrush  is  an 
orchard,  and  orchards  are  generally  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
human  habitations,  and  of  these  magpies  are  shy. 

709.  How  is   the   intelligence   of  the   thrush   manifested  by  its 
manner  of  procuring  food  ? 

When  a  thrush  settles  upon  a  lawn  moistened  with  dew  or  rain, 
he  at  first  stands  motionless,  as  if  undetermined  how  he  shall 
proceed.  Suddenly  he  bends  his  head  on  one  side,  as  if  in  the  act 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  235 


"  Who  but  the  swallow  triumphs  now  alone  1 
The  canopy  of  h -aven  is  all  her  own  : 
Her  youthful  offspring-  to  their  haunts  repair, 
And  glide  along  in  glades,  and  skim  in  air." — DRYDEX. 

of  listening,  his  beak  almost  touches  the  ground,  and  he  draws  back 
his  head  as  if  to  make  a  determined  peck. 

Again  he  pauses  and  listens  ;  hops,  perhaps,  once  or  twice, 
scarcely  moving  his  position,  and  pecks  smartly  on  the  sod,  then 
once  more  stands  motionless. 

After  a  moment's  pause,  appearing  to  have  ascertained  that  all  is 
right,  he  pecks  away  assiduously,  and  soon  draws  forth  a  worm, 
which  his  keen  sense  of  hearing  had  informed  him  was  not  far  off, 
and  which  his  hops  and  previous  peckings  had  driven  to  the 
surface  to  escape  the  approach  of  what  the  worm  apprehended, 
from  the  manner  of  the  pecking,  was  an  under-ground  enemy. 

710.  Wliy  have   the   thrush,  the  golden-crested  wren,  and  some 
other  birds  the  front  toes  fastened  by  a  thin  skin  in  contradistinc 
tion,    birds     which    have    their   toes   quite   separated  from    each 
other  ? 

Because  the  birds  named  rest  chiefly  upon  light  bushes,  and  this 
union  of  the  two  toes  gives  the  foot  a  stronger  foundation  for 
clasping  the  slender  twigs  than  loose  toes  could  do. 

Sub-order  II. — Fissirostree. 

711.  Why  are  the  fissirostrcs  so  designated? 

Because  these  birds  are  distinguished  by  the  wideness  of  their 
gape,  hence  they  are  called  gapers  ;  the  word  is  derived  from  findo, 
to  "  divide,"  and  rostrum,  a  "  beak."  The  swallow  is  the  type  of 
the  species,  hence  its  name. 

712.  Why  are  swifts,  swallows,  and  martins  appointed  to  their 
different  ranges  of  elevation  when  on  the  wing  ? 

The  intention  is,  doubtless,  to  clear  the  air  in  some  degree  of  its 
over-abundance  of  living  swarms.  Very  high  in  the  atmosphere,  the 
fewest  flies  are  to  be  found:  there  the  rapid  swift  is  stationed. 
The  chimney  swallows  take  a  lower  region,  and  fly  more  slowly,  for 


230  THE    REASON   WHY: 


"  The  breezy  call  of  incense  breathing  morn, 

The  swallow  t\vitteri»g  from  the  straw-built  shed, 
The  cock's  shrill  clarion,  or  the  echoing  horn, 
No  more  shall  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed."  —  QUAY. 

in  their  appointed  track  there  are  more  insects  to  be  met  with.  The 
house  martin,  flying  slower  still,  catches  those  insects  which,  except 
when  rain  is  near,  move  along  at  a  height  of  from  fifteen  to  forty 
feet  above  the  ground.  The  sand  martin  has  his  post  still  lower 
down,  for  he  usually  skims  after  gnats  and  other  flies  just  over 
low  flat  grounds. 

Thus,  each  bird  accomplishing  its  work  at  a  different  altitude, 
their  united  efforts  clear  the  air  of  insects  which  would  otherwise 
be  injurious  to  vegetation,  and  annoying  to  animals. 


713.  fHiy  do    the  habits    of  swallows  peculiarly  adapt    those 
birds  to  migration? 

Because  their  exercise  renders 
long  flights  endurable  ;  and  the 
capability  of  sustaining  them 
selves  in  the  air  for  fourteen  or 
sixteen  hours  together  in  search 
of  food,  renders  these  distant 
journeys  less  fatiguing  than 
they  would  be  to  birds  of 
inactive  habits. 

714.  Why  are  the  holes  made  by  swallows  nearly  as  circular  as 
though  they  had  been  planned  with  a  pair  of  compasses  ? 

Because,  when  the  swallow  is  constructing  its  nest,  it  perches  on 
the  circumference  with  its  claws,  and  works  with  its  bill  from  the 
centre  outwards  ;  a  radius  is  thus  formed  by  a  part  of  the  bird's 
v>ody,  whieh  is  subject  to  little  variation. 

715.  Why  do  the  mandibles  of  swallows  open  further  back  than 
in  most  other  birds  ? 

Because,  with  this  bird,  the  food  is  caught  when  flying,  which 
requires  a  peculiar  construction  of  the  mouth,  producing  a  large 
gape,  in  which  the  insects  are  caught,  as  in  a  net. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


237 


With  these  the  tnartin  readily  concurred, 

A  church  begot,  u.nd  church-believing  hird ; 

Of  little  body,  but  of  lofty  mind. 

Round  belly'd  for  a  dignity  design'd. — DRYDEN. 


716.  How  is  a  swallow  enabled  to  build  its  nest  on  a  perpendicular 
wall  where  there  is  no  projection  underneath  ? 


The  bird  partly  clings  with  its 
claws,  and  partly  supports  itself 
by  strongly  inclining  its  tail 
against  the  wallt  making  that 
a  fulcrum,  and,  thus  steadied, 
it  works,  and  plasters  the 
materials  into  the  face  of  the 
brick  or  stone. 


-  0       -= 


717.  Why  do  martins  and  swallows  prefer  to  build  their  nests 
near  to  and  within  the  habitations  of  man? 

These  tribes,  living  almost  entirely  upon  insects,  it  is  most 
probable  that  such  localities  afford  them,  during  their  summer 
residence,  the  most  abundant  supply  of  food. 

718.  Doubtless  birds  understand  who  are  their  friends  ;  the  swallows,  swifts,  and 
martins  have  ever  been  favoured  by  man.  Even  the  savage  Indian  welcomes  them, 
and  provides  a  receptacle  for  their  nests.  The  Chectaws  and  Chicasaws  cut  off  all 
the  top  branches  from  a  sapling  near  their  cabins,  leaving  the  prongs  a  foot  or  two 
in  length,  on  each  of  which  they  hang  a  gourd  or  calabosh,  properly  hollowed  out, 
for  their  convenience ;  and  the  negroes  upon  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  provide 
similarly  for  them.  The  reason  why  swallows  and  martins  have  always  been 
protected  by  man,  is  probably  because  they  are  inveterate  foes  to  crows,  hawks, 
and  eagles.  Although  so  small  in  size,  they  vigorously  attack  these  depredators, 
and  seldom  fail  to  come  off  victorious.  Of  course,  the  swallow  is  moved  to  this 
degree  of  combativeness  in  defence  of  its  nest  and  brood  ;  but,  as  a  result,  h<;,  and 
his  friend  the  martin,  have  been  from  time  immemorial  recognised  as  excellent 
guardians  of  the  poultry  yard. 

719.    Why  is  the  esculent  swallow  so  called? 

Because  both  the  bird  and  its  nest  form  a  favourite  foni  in 
Java,  Japan,  and  China. 


THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  The  swift  actually  performs  what  has  been  in  these 
enlightened  times  disproved  of  the  bird  of  Paradise ;  except  the 
small  time  it  take-  in  sleeping,  and  what 't  devote.s  to  incubation; 
every  other  action  is  done  on  the  wing." — PENNANT. 

720.  The  edible  birds'  nest  of  the  extreme  east  of  Asia  have  given  rise  to  much 
speculation,  and  their  composition  is  still  a  matter  of  doubt.  They  are  found 
attached  to  the  sides  of  cliffs,  and  the  roofs  of  caverns  opening  upon  the  sea-coasts. 
But  whether  their  substance  is  derived  from  the  gastric  glands  of  the  swallows,  or 
collected  by  the  latter  from  the  sea-shore,  or  elsewhere,  it  is  impossible  to  say- 
authorities  being  equally  divided  upon  the  point.'  In  outward  appearance,  the 
esculent  swallow's  nest  resembles  that  of  the  chimney  swallow,  being  concave, 
shallow,  and  lined  with  feathers  ;  but  the  crust,  or  shell,  instead  of  being  made  of 
clay  is  something  in  appearance  like  the  fine  manna  of  commerce,  or  isinglass.  Fine 
filaments  appear  to  be  cemented  together  by  a  transparent  viscous  matter,  not 
unlike  what  is  left  by  the  sea  upon  stones  alternately  covered  by  the  tide,  or  those 
gelatinous  animal  substances  found  floating  upon  every  coast.* 

About  twenty-seven  thousand  pounds  weight  are  annually  exported  from  Java, 
and  about  thirty  thousand  tons  of  Chinese  shipping  are  engaged  in  the  traffic.  The 
danger  attendant  upon  the  collecting  of  the  nests  in  the  awful  caverns  is  described 
as  being  imminent  in  the  extreme. 

721.  Why  does  the,  swift  rarely  alight  on  level  ground  ? 

Because,  owing  to  the  extreme  shortness  of  the  feet,  and  the 
disproportionate  length  of  the  wings,  the  bird  cannot  rise  from  a 
flat  surface,  since  its  body  is  not  sufficiently  elevated  to  admit  of 
the  downward  stroke  of  the  wings.  Whenever  the  swift  does 
alight,  therefore,  it  is  always  in  such  places  as  present  a  brink  or 
declivity,  from  the  edge  of  which  it  can  launch  itself. 

722.  How  do  swifts,  which  seldom  alight  on  the  ground,  gather 
the  materials  for  their  nests  ? 

It  has  been  conjectured  that  swifts  gather  the  materials  by 
raising  them  as  they  glance  along  the  ground,  in  the  same  way 
that  they  drink  by  skimming  over  the  surface  of  the  water. 
Others  suppose  that  these  birds  catch  the  substances  in  the  air 
as  they  are  carried  up  by  the  wind.  Whilst  the  more  common 
and  generally  received  opinion  is,  that  the  materials  are  purloined 
from  the  nests  of  sparrows  and  swallows. 

723.  This  latter  surmise  is  corroborated  by  several  circumstances  :  first,  the  swift's 
nest  consists  of  nearly  the  same  substances  as  the  sparrows;  secondly,  we  know 
that  swifts  enter  sometimes  into  the  nests  of  small  birds,  which  we  may  suppose 

*  Sir  G.  Staunton. 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


239 


"  Ah  !  would  thou  know'st  how  much  it  better  were 

To  'bide  among  the  simple  fisher-swaines  ; 
Ho  shrieking  owl,  no  night-jar  lodgeth  here, 
Nor  is  our  simple  pleasure  mixed  with  pains." — P.  FLETCHER. 

they  do  for  the  sake  of  pillaging  the  materials.  With  regard  to  the  moss  whicn 
they  employ,  it  is  in  very  small  quantity,  and  they  may  gather  it  with  their 
little  claws,  which  are  very  strong,  from  trees,  on  which  they  can  clamber,  in  the 
hollows  cf  which  they  sometimes  breed.  Of  seven  nests  found  under  the  head  of 
a  church  porch,  fifteen  feet  from  the  ground,  there  were  only  three  which  had  a 
regular  cup-shape,  and  of  which  the  materials  were  more  or  less  interwoven,  and 
with  greater  order  than  usual  in  sparrows'  nests ;  they  had  also  more  moss  and 
fewer  ft  athers,  and  were  in  general  less  bulky.  The  best  formed  of  all  weighed 
two  ounces  and  a  half;  and  the  largest,  five  or  six  times  more  than  the 
smallest. 

724.  Why  is   it,  said,  when     sivallows  fly   high,   fine    weather 
may  be  expected  ? 

Because  swallows  follow  flies  and  gnats,  and  these  delight  in 
Warm  air  ;  and  as  warm  air  is  lighter,  and  usually  moister  than 
cold  air,  when  the  warm  strata  of  air  are  high,  there  is  less  change 
of  moisture  being  thrown  down  from  them  by  the  mixture  with 
cold  air. 

But  when  the  warm  and  moist  air  is  close  to  the  surface,  the 
flies  and  swallows  fly  low,  and  it  is  almost  certain  that,  as  the  cold 
air  flows  down  into  it,  a  deposition  of  water  will  take  place. 

725.  Why    is     the    mouth    of   the     goat-sucker,    or    night-jar, 
furnished  with  long  bristly  hairs? 


more  securely  to  ensure 
of 


These  birds  puisne  their 
insect  prey  in  the  night,  for 
which  purpose  their  eyes  are 
peculiarly  adapted.  When, 
however,  they  have  captured 
an  insect,  their  eyes  are  of 
no  further  avail,  and  the 
long  bristles  then  act  as 
feelers,  enabling  the  bird 
prey,  and  to  prevent  all  possibility 


240  THE   REASON  WHY: 


"  His  plumes  were  inky  black,  of  vast  extent ; 
His  hooky  claws  on  spoil  and  ravine  bent." — Hooue. 


Sub-order  III. — Conirostres. 

726.   Why  is  the  sub-order  conirostres  so  termed? 

From  ctwus,  a  cone,  and  rostrum,  a  beak,  importing  that  birds 
of  this  sub- order  have  a  bill  more  or  less  conical,  in  shape. 

727.  The  Conirostres  are  miscellaneous  feeders ;  but  they  differ  s»  much  in  their 
character  and  habits,  that  no  one  species  can  be  selected  as  properly  descriptive  of 
the  whole  tribe.  The  texture  of  their  bills  is  firm,  and  capable  of  bruising  hard 
substances — such  as  seeds — with  tough  coats  ;  and  also  for  digging  or  boring  into 
the  ground  in  quest  of  earth-insects,  or  of  albuminous  roots. 

728.  Why  are  the  heads  of  birds  of  this  sub-order  large  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  their  bodies  ? 

Because  the  muscles  which  move  the  bill  are  more  powerful,  and 
consequently  larger,  than  in  the  case  of  birds  which  feed  exclusively 
upon  insects. 

729.  Many  of  the  conirostres  are  voracious,  and  somewhat  gross  in  their  feeding. 
They  eat  all  manner  of  carrion  and  garbage,  thus  performing  a  highly  useful  service 
to  man ;  they  have  no  great  objection  to  kill  any  animal  which  they  can  master, 
especially  if  they  find  it  in  a  sick  or  weakly  condition.  Some  of  them  occasionally 
hawk  after  small  birds  on  the  wing,  but  it  is  not  a  general  habit  with  them  :  they 
proceed  by  stealthiness  and  craft  rather  than  by  daring,  and  in  general  attack  only 
that  which  they  can  take  at  a  disadvantage.  They  are  also  plunderers  of  the  nests 
of  other  birds. 

730.  How  is  the  bill  of  the  raven  characterised  ? 

The  structure  of  its  bill  is  intermediate  between  those  of  the 
vulture*,  which  feed  chiefly  upon  carrion,  and  the  woodpeckers  and 
analogous  species,  which  obtain  their  food  by  digging  or  thrusting 
into  crevices  in  the  barks  of  trees  and  fissures  of  rocks.  It  is 
inlaying  and  straight,  and  can  inflict  a  severe  wound  by  thrusting  ; 
it  is  slightly  hooked  at  the  tip,  so  that  it  can  keep  a  firm  hold, 
while  the  bird  rips  and  tears  by  the  motions  of  the  neck  ;  and  as 
it  is  long,  the  snap  of  the  point  is  very  sharp,  from  the  rapic!\ty  of 
the  motion. 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  241 


And  the  hoarse  raven  on  the  blasted  bough, 

By  croaking  from  the  left  presaged  the  coming  blow." — DRYDEN. 


731.  The  raven,  though  not  very  numerous  in  any  place,  and  though  dwelling  in 
solitude,  pairing  for  life,  and  not  very  prolific,  is  one  of  the  most  generally  dis 
tributed  of  birds.  Almost  every  other  species  has  some  country  which  it  can  claim 
to  a  considerable  extent  as  its  own  ;  and  even  though  it  is  migrant,  and  passes  the 
different  seasons  in  places  some  thousands  of  miles  asunder,  it  returns  with  the 
season,  not  only  to  the  same  latitude,  and  to  the  same  land,  but  often  to  the  very 
same  spot.  The  raven  is  no  migrant,  except  in  shifting  a  little  with  the  seasons,  as 
the  supply  of  food  varies,  but  never  quitting  the  same  district ;  and  yet  there  is  no 
country  in  which  the  raven  is  not  found  native.  The  margin  of  the  desert,  of  the 
jungle,  or  of  the  forest,  in  the  hottest  climates, — the  heights  of  alternate  cliff  and 
copse  in  temperate  climates,  or  the  rocks  and  heaths,  and  even  the  lichen-clad 
margins  of  the  inhabited  regions  near  the  poles,  are  all  equally  the  abode  of  the 
raven.  Let  the  sun  blaze,  the  wind  blow,  the  rain  pelt,  or  the  snow  drive,  with 
ever  so  much  intensity,  his  dusky  wing,  or  firmly-set  foot,  is  in  its  element,  and  tho 
Wreck  of  nature  to  others  proves  to  him  a  season  of  plenty. 

732.  Why  is  the  raven  termed  tJie  "herald  of  the  year?" 

Because,  as  early  as  the  latter  part  of  January,  if  the  weather  be 
mild,  these  birds  may  be  seen  on  the  alert,  looking  into  the  state  of 
their  nests,  and  making  other  preparations  for  the  spring. 

733.  Why  is    the    raven   commonly  associated    with    sickness, 
misfortune,  and  other  human  ills? 

Because  his  black  plumage,  discordant  croaking  cry,  and  wild 
and  funeral  aspect,  favour  the  superstitious  feelings  which  arise 
amongst  ignorant  persons. 

734.  It  is  said  that  the  southern  aborigines  invoke  the  raven  for  those  who  are 
sick,  mimicking  his  voice ;  and  the  natives  of  Missouri,  assuming  black  as  their 
emblem  of  war,  decorate  themselves  on  those  occasions  with  the  plumes  of  this 
dark  bird.  But  all  the  knowledge  of  the  future,  or  interest  in  destiny,  possessed  by 
the  raven,  like  that  of  other  inhabitants  of  the  air,  is  bounded  by  an  instinctive 
feeling  of  the  changes  which  are  about  to  happen  in  the  atmosphere,  and  which  he 
has  the  faculty  of  announcing  by  certain  cries  and  actions  produced  by  these 
external  impressions.  In  the  southern  provinces  of  Sweden,  as  Linneus  remarks, 
•when  the  sky  is  serene,  the  raven  flies  very  high,  and  utters  a  hollow  sound,  like 
the  word  clonff,  which  is  heard  at  a  distance.  Sometimes  he  has  been  seen  in  the 
midst  of  a  thunder-storm,  amid  electric  fires  which  appeared  to  stream  from  his 
bill — a  natural,  though  extraordinary  phenomenon,  sufficient  to  terrify  the  super 
stitious,  and  to  stamp  the  harmless  subject  of  it  with  the  imaginary  traits  and 
attributes  of  a  demon. 

11 


242  THE    REASON    WHY  : 

"  And  the  raven  never  flitting,  still  is  sitting,  still  is  sitting 

On  the  pallid  bust  of  Pallas,  just  above  my  chamber  door; 
And  his  eyes  have  all  the  seeming  of  a  demon's  that  is  dreaming1, 
And  the  lamp-light  o'er  him   streaming,  throws  his   shadow  -JA 
the  floor." — EDGAR  POK. 

735.  Why  are  ravens  more  social  than  birds  of  prey  ? 

Because  the  food  upon  which  they  subsist  is  of  a  promiscuous 
nature,  and  abundant  in  quantity,  which  allows  a  greater  number 
to  subsist  together  without  being  urged  to  the  storn  necessity  of 
solitude  or  famine — a  condition  to  which  the  true  rapacious  birds 

are  always  driven. 

i 

736.  Why  is  it  erroneous  to  suppose  that  crows  destroy  grass  ? 

This  error  arisen  out  of  the 
following  circumstance  :  In  search 
ing  for  grubs  which  are  concealed 
in  the  earth,  and  which  are  sup 
ported  by  eating  the  roots  of 
the  grass,  the  crow  pulls  at  the 
stem  of  the  grass  with  its  bill, 
and  when  the  grass  conies  up, 
the  crow  knows  that  there  are 
under  it  insects  which  have  de 
stroyed  its  roots,  and  in  this  way  detects  them  ;  but  if  the  stem  of 
grass  is  firm,  the  crow  goes  to  another  tuft,  and  proceeds  in  the 
same  manner. 

737.  Wliy  is  the  rook  the  earliest  bird  stirring  in  the  morning  ? 

Because  its  principal  food  is  worms,  which  feed  and  crawl 
upon  the  humid  surface  of  the  ground  in  the  dark,  and  retire 
before  the  light  of  day ;  and,  roosting  higher  than  other  birds, 
the  first  rays  of  the  sun  as  they  dart  from  the  horizon,  become 
visible  to  the  rook. 

738.  Why  is  the  flight  of  rooks  popularly  supposed  to  portend 
rough  or  fine  weather  ? 

Because  it  is  proved  by  observation  that  when  a  gale  of  wind 
is  blowing,  or  about  to  blow,  they  descend  into  valleys,  and  just 
skim  over  the  tops  of  the  intervening  hills  and  trees  ;  but  when 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  243 


'  Rooks  unnumbered  build  their  nest — 
Deliberate  birds,  and  prudent  all ; 
Their  notes,  indeed,  are  harsh  and  rude, 
But  they're  a  social  multitude." — CKABBE. 

the  sky  is   calm  and  clear,  they  pass  through  the  U2)per  air  in 
regular  and  easy  flight. 

739.  Sometimes  these  birds  perform  an  evolution  usually  called  the  "  shooting 
of  the  rooks."  When  they  have  risen  to  an  immense  height  in  the  air,  so  that,  in 
appearance,  they  are  scarcely  larger  than  the  lark,  they  suddenly  descend  to  the 
ground,  or  to  the  tops  of  trees  exactly  under  them.  To  effect  this,  they  come 
headlong  down,  on  pinions  a  little  raised,  but  not  expanded,  in  a  zig-zag  direction 
(presenting  alternately  their  back  and  breast),  through  the  resisting  air,  with  a 
noise  resembling  the  rushing  of  the  wind ;  and  when  we  consider  the  prodigious 
height  of  the  rooks  at  the  time  they  begin  to  descend,  we  conclude  that  they  cannot 
effect  their  arrival  at  a  spot  immediately  under  them  by  any  other  process  so 
short  and  rapid. 

740.  Wliy  are,   rooJcs  seen  to  busy  themselves  in   autumn  about 
their  nests,  as  though  they  were  going  to  'make  immediate   use  of 
them,  and  then  desert  them  for  the  w inter  ? 

This  curious  proceeding  probably  arises  from  an  instinctive 
feeling  that  as  the  nests  will  be  wanted  early  in  spring,  a  few  repairs 
may  be  requisite  to  strengthen  and  prevent  their  being  shattered 
or  blown  to  pieces  by  the  storms  of  winter. 

741.  Why  is  it  said  that  a  crow  can  smell  gunpowder  ? 

Because  the  natural  wariness  in  most  seasons  of  the  year  of  this 
bird,  and  the  perpetual  persecution  which  it  has  undergone  from 
man,  cause  it  to  keep  a  very  sharp  look-out  ;  and  induces  it  to 
take  flight  at  the  earliest  approach  of  the  gunner. 

742.  The  rook  is  a  bird  of  great  sagacity.  It  has  been  known  to  fly  from  a  man 
carrying  a  crutch  on  his  shoulder,  and  yet  to  endure  the  approach  of  the  same 
man  when  he  walked  with  a  limping  gait,  with  the  crutch  under  his  arm.  It  has 
also  suffered  the  approach  of  a  sportsman  who  put  his  gun  under  his  arm,  and  pre 
tended  to  use  it  as  a  crutch.  "We  doubt  the  presumption  that  rooks  can  smell  gun 
powder,  although  we  have  seen,  in  a  fann-book  of  considerable  authority,  a  rag 
smeared  with  gunpowder  recommended  to  scare  away  rooks.  The  moving  rag  may 
have  the  effect,  without  the  aid  of  the  gunpowder. 

743.  In  what  respects  are  the  bill  and  stomach  of  the  rook 
practically  adapted  to  each  other? 

The  bill  is  so  constructed  that  it  can  lay  hold  of,  and  rend. 


244 


THE    REASON   WHY  : 


"  Or  in  a  shady  tree 

Nine  maopies  perch'd  lament  their  altor'd  state, 

And  what  they  hear  are  skilful  to  repeat." — MAYNWARINQ. 


almost  any  kind  of  food;  and  the  digestive  organs  extract 
nutriment  from  a  great  variety  of  substances ;  the  stomach  being 
intermediate  between  the  membranous,  or  thinly-muscular  kind, 
peculiar  to  the  carnivorous  families,  and  gizzards,  or  strongly- 
muscular  organs  which  are  possessed  by  those  animals  that  feed 
on  hard  vegetable  substances. 

744.  Why  is  the  wholesale  destruction  of  crows,  as  generally 
practised  by  farmers,  a  mistaheji  policy  ? 

Because  these  birds  destroy  an  amazing  number  of  grubs  and 
injurious  insects,  which,  to  all  appearance,  have  no  other  enemies  ; 
their  singular  mode  of  following  the  course  of  the  plough,  both  in 
winter  and  spring,  leaves  no  doubt  of  this  fact. 

745.  Crows  are  persistency  destroyed,  because  it  is  believed  that  when  they 
search  after  insects  in  newly-sown  fields,  they  devour,  also,  the  grain  whit  h  they 
meet  with  in  their  track.  This  may,  at  least  in  part,  be  true ;  but  no  positive  proof 
can  exist  of  such  being:  the  case.  Certain  it  is,  that  in  particular  parts  of  America, 
where  the  crows  were  completely  eradicated  or  driven  away  by  incessant  firing,  the 
numbers  of  noxious  insects  increased  so  prodigiously  that  the  farmers,  to  the>i 
sorrow,  found  the  remedy  worse  than  the  disease  ;  the  whole  district  agreeing  to 
suffer  the  persecuted  crows  to  return,  and  occupy  again  their  old  quarters. 

746.  Why  does  the  structure  of  the  magpie  adapt  it  either  for 
a  tree  or  a  ground  bird? 

Because  the  wings  are  only  of 
moderate  length,  which  renders 
them  suitable  for  taking  the  air  at 
all  angles,  and  also  for  turning. 
The  tail  is  also  greatly  developed, 
capable  of  considerable  action, 
and  wedge-shaped  ;  the  first  and 
second  properties  being  requisite 
in  the  frequent  ascents  and 
descents  of  the  bird,  and  the  last 
hi  avoiding  the  twigs  and  other 
obstacles  which  the  bird  could 
the  tail  had  been  square  at 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  24J, 


"  So  doth  the  magpie  mischievously  steal 
Of  wealth  he  knows  not — only  to"  conceal." — NEWMAN. 


747.  Wliy  have,  magpies  the  reputation  of  being  thieving  birds  f 

These  birds  possess  a  strong  degree  of  curiosity  in  observation, 
and  seem  to  have  an  especial  perception  for  brilliancy  of  colour. 
If,  for  instance,  there  were  two  small  pieces  of  potters'  ware,  of  the 
same  size,  shape,  and  consistency,  and  if  one  piece  were  coaise  and 
brown  and  the  other  glazed,  it  is  almost  certain  that  the  magpie 
would  carry  off  the  glazed  piece,  but  certainly  not  the  other :  so 
also,  if  a  shilling  and  a  halfpenny  were  left  in  this  bird's  way, 
the  shilling  would  in  all  probability  be  carried  off  and  the 
halfpenny  left. 

This  fondness  for  bright  and  shining  articles  tempts  the  bird 
to  steal  articles  of  plate,  &c.,  hence  the  incident  upon  which  the 
popular  story  is  founded  of  "  The  Maid  and  the.  Magpie"  and  a 
number  of  other  anecdotes,  all  illustrative  of  this  thievish  pro 
pensity  ;  whilst  their  curious  and  observant  disposition  may 
account  for  their  stealing  articles  which  hare  no  particularly 
attractive  qualities  to  recommend  them. 

748.  Wliy  is  a  magpie,    when  seen  alone,  said   to  foretell  tod 

weather  ? 

Because  magpies  generally  fly  in  company,  but  on  the  approach 
of  wet  or  cold  one  remains  in  the  nest  to  take  carp-  of  the  young, 
while  the  other  one  wanders  in  search  of  food. 

For  the  same  reason,  a  single  magpie  is  said  to  be  an 
unlucky  omen  to  anglers,  while  two  prognosticate  fine,  weather 
and  good  sport. 

749.  Why  is  the  crossbill  furnished  with  a  beak   of  peculiar 
structure  1 

Because  it  is  a  bird  inhabiting  forests  in  which  vast  pine  trees 
grow,  and  living  as  it  does  upon  the  seeds  of  the  pine,  the  beak  with 
which  it  is  furnished  is  best  adapted  for  assisting  it  in  obtaining 
supplies  of  food. 


246 


THE   REASON    WHY  : 


"  The  sparrow,  meanest  of  the  feathered  race, 
riis  iit  companion  finds  in  every  place." — COWPKR. 


750.  The  seeds  of  the  pines,  which,  until  the  cone  has  been  exposed  to  the  action 

of  the  weather  for  a  consider 
able  time  after  the  seeds  are 
ripe,  are  so  firmly  enclosed 
between  the  ligneous  scales  as 
to  prevent  the  bill  of  an  ordi 
nary  bird  from  reaching  them 
This  bill  consists  of  a  very 
powerful  pair  of  levers,  by 
means  of  which  the  scales  can 
be  wrenched  open,  and  the 
'  


seeds  arrived  at  in  a  mannei 
the  most  effective.  When  the 
two  sharp  points  are  brought 
together,  they  can  be  inserted 
into  a  very  small  opening,  in  which,  the  instant  that  they  begin  to  operate,  each  takes 
hold  like  a  hook,  and  tends  to  draw  itself  in  ;  thus  cutting  open  in  the  direction  of 
the  face  or  plane  of  the  scale,  while  by  their  action  upon  each  other  they  pi-ess  it 
open  by  the  power  of  a  double  wedge  ;  and  by  the  time  that  the  mandibles  have 
crossed  to  their  full  extent,  the  scale  is  so  completely  raised  that  the  seed  can  be 
taken  from  under  it  with  the  greatest  ease.  The  position  into  which  the  oblique 
action  of  the  bill  brings  the  head  enables  the  bird  to  see  the  seed  under  the  scale, 
and  while  the  mandibles  keep  the  scale  open,  the  tongue  of  the  bird  scoops  out  the 
seed.  The  tongue  is  as  curious  as  the  mandibles.  It  terminates  in  a  horny  gouge, 
supported  by  a  bone,  and  furnished  with  muscles,  by  which  it  can  be  raised  or 
depressed  so  as  to  act  as  an  independent  instrument.  The  motion  of  the  bill 
divides  a  soft  and  pulpy  substance  with  remarkable  facility ;  and  when  the  birds 
visit  orchards,  which  they  sometimes  do  in  the  autumn,  they  cut  the  apples 
asundei,  in  order  to  get  at  the  pips,  with  almost  as  great  a  nicety  as  one  would 
use  a  knife. 


751.  Why  are  sparrows  useful  to  vegetation  ? 

Because  they  devour  myriads  of  insects  which  would  otherwise 
do  infinite  injury  ;  this  is  particularly  the  case  when  they  have 
young  ones,  all  of  which  are  fed  with  insects  and  caterpillars. 

752.  Why  is   the    sparrow   bolder,   and   less  fearful   of  being 
caught  or  killed,  than  most  other  birds  ? 

Because  its  location  in  the  neighbourhood  of  populous  towns  and 
cities  renders  it  accustomed  to  man,  who,  on  his  part,  being  intent 
on  other  matters,  passes  hourly  within  a  few  yards  of  this  bird 
without  ever  giving  it  a  thought. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  247 


"  The  cleft  tree 

Offers  its  kind  concealment  to  a  few, 
Their  food  its  insects,  and  its  moss  their  nests."— THOMSON. 

753.    Why  does  the  house-sparrow  pertinaciously  appropriate  to 
its  own  use  the  nest  of  other  birds  ? 


Because  sparrows  occupy  their 
nests  at  night  throughout  the 
year  ;  and,  though  they  are 
hardy  birds,  they  require  warm 
shelter  during  severe  frosts,  and 
therefore  seize  upon  any  con 
venience  which  they  can  find 
best  adapted  to  their  purpose. 


754.  Why  is  the  sparrow  comparatively  late  in  awaking  in  the 
morning  ? 

Because  it  roosts  in  holes,  and  under  the  eaves  of  ricks,  or 
sheds,  where  the  light  does  not  so  soon  enter  as  in  open  places. 

755.  Why  is  the  claw  upon  the  hind  toe  of  the  lark  of  greater 
length  than  is  to  be  found  generally  in  other  birds  ? 

Because  the  lark  is  a  field  bird,  nestling  on  the  ground,  and 
deriving  its  food  from  the  earth  ;  and  the  peculiar  conformation  of 
the  foot  enables  the  bird  to  run  on  thick  matted  grass,  or  to  rise 
from  it,  or  alight  on  it,  with  much  less  inconvenience  than  almost 
any  other  bird. 

756.  Larks  are  fleet  runners,  and  they  stand  up  for  observation,  with  their  heads 
above  the  cover ;  the  head,  which  is  generally  crested,  and  has  the  crest  erected, 
not  being  easily  distinguishable  from  a  clod. 

757.  What  especial  use  does  the  lark  make  of  its  disportionally 
long  claws  ? 

The  lark  makes  its  nest  generally  in  grass  fields,  where  it  is 


'248  THE   REASON   WHY  I 


"  Ye  birds 

That  singing  up  to  Heav'n's  gale  ascend, 
Bear  on  your  wings,  and  in  your  notes,  his  praise." — MILTON. 


liable  to  be  injured,  either  by  cattle  grazing  over  it,  or  by  the 
mower.  In  case  of  alarm  from  these  or  other  causes,  the  parent 
birds  remove  their  eggs  by  means  of  their  long  claws,  to  a  place  of 
greater  security. 

758.  Why  does  the  song  of  the  sky-larlc,  when  on  the  wing,  change 
with  its  ascent  and  descent.,  j,nd  possess  a  uniform  key  only  when 
the  bird  is  poised  in  the  air  ? 

Because  the  windpipe  is  the  musical  organ,  and  birds  require  this 
organ  less  for  breathing  than  other  animals  having  a  windpipe  and 
lungs,  because  of  the  air-cells  and  breathing  tubes  with  which  all 
parts  of  their  bodies  are  furnished. 

But  those  different  breathing  organs  must  act  with  less  freedom 
when  the  bird  is  making  the  greatest  efforts  in  motion,  that  is, 
when  ascending  or  descending ;  and  in  proportion  as  these  cease 
to  act,  the  trachea  is  the  more  required  for  the  purposes  of 
breathing. 

The  sky-lark  thus  converts  the  atmosphere  into  a  musical 
instrument  of  many  stops,  the  song  swelling  as  the  bird  ascends, 
sinking  with  the  downward  flight,  and  with  each  wheel  in  the  air 
varying  the  pitch  of  the  song.  All  birds  that  sing  ascending  or 
descending  have  similar  power,  but  the  sky-lark  has  it  in  a  degree 
superior  to  any  other. 

759.    Why  is  the  female  linnet  often  mistaken  for  the  male  ? 

Because,  when  the  male  bird  has  attracted  the  atttention  of  his 
intended  captor,  he  instantly  hops  into  the  bush  before  his  plumago 
can  be  carefully  noticed  ;  and,  if  the  bush  is  beaten,  the  female  bird 
will  fly  out,  and  thus  get  credit  for  the  song  of  her  mate. 

760  The  deception  is  further  increased  by  the  male  ceasing  his  song  and  raising 
his  alarm-call  as  soon  as  he  is  seen,  and  until  he  disappears  in  the  bush,  for  he  does 
not  generally  1y  out ;  but  the  female  does,  and  vrilcs  away  the  enemy  from  th« 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


249 


Behold,  -within  the  leafy  shade, 

Those  speckled  eg<>s  together  laid ! 

On  me  the  chance-discovered  sight 

Gleamed  like  a  vision  of  delight." — WOKDSWOHTB. 


nest  hy  a  series  of  short  flights ;  and  when  the  coast  is  clear,  she  again  flies  into 
the  bush,  chirping  softly  the  note  of  safety,  and  soon  after  the  male  resumes 
uis  song. 

761.  Why  do  goldfinches  build  their  nests   on  flexible  branches 
in  preference  to  rigid  ones  ? 


Because  the  young  being  th.ua 
rocked  to  and  fro  in  the  nest, 
are  made  accustomed  to  the 
motion  which  they  will  after 
wards  experience  when  seeking 
their  food  on  the  tops  of  tall 
and  flexible  stems. 


762.  Wliy    does   the    titmouse  suspend  its    nest  over    a   pond 
or  stream  ? 

In  order  to  preserve   it  from  the  attacks   of  quadrupeds  and 
reptiles. 

763.  What    is   especially    remarkable   in    the  plumage   of   the 
canary  bird  ? 

Its  light  sulphur  colour,  which  it  has  exchanged  for  the  grey  or 
brown  hue  of  its  native  islands. 


764.  This  little  captive  songster  was  introduced  to  Europe  early  in  the  16tb 
century,  and  is  believed  to  have  spread  from  the  coast  of  Italy,  where  a  vessel, 
which  was  bringing  to  Leghorn  a  number  of  these  birds,  besides  merchandise,  was 
wrecked.  The  climate  being  favourable,  they  increased ;  but  they  did  not  bccom* 
naturalised,  being  entrapped  by  breeders  for  the  purpose  of  sale. 

765.    W]iy    are,   birds  of  Paradise  so  called  ? 

Tu  earlier  ages  these  birds,  which  are  peculiar  in  their  stiuctur* 
11* 


THE    REASON    WHY  : 


'  Resplendent  Tvanderer !  followed  with  glad  eyes 
Where'er  her  course  ;  mysterious  bird, " 
To  whom,  by  wandering'  fancy  stirred, 
Eastern  islanders  have  given 
A  holy  name — the  Bird  of  Heaven." — WORDWORTH. 

^~~vy^~vx*V>XVW\X^X^XVXVVX>^\XVVVVVxrv^^>^NXVv~N/VVV\/VVVN/v\>^/V 

and  remarkable  for  the  beauty  and  gloss  of  their  plumage,  were 
supposed  to  whisk  about  like  bright  meteors  in  the  equinoctial  sun, 
without  the  usual  attributes  of  wings  or  feet ;  and  were  also  believed 
to  dwell  in  the  air,  and  live  upon  the  nectar  of  those  flowers  which, 
in  the  climates  where  the  birds  are  native,  twine  in  garlands  and 
festoons  at  the  topmost  branches  of  the  trees. 


766.   Why    were    the    birds   of    Paradise 
naturalists  to  be  without  legs,  and   to  remain 
in  the  cir ? 


by 


the    older 
suspended 


These  beautiful  creatures 
frequenting  only  the  neigh 
bourhood  of  the  tropics,  had, 
until  a  comparatively  recent 
date,  never  been  caught  and 
examined.  The  accounts  of 
them,  therefore,  were  like 
many  "travellers'  tales," 
much  exaggerated.  This  is 
partly  excused  and  accounted 
for  by  the  extreme  beauty 
of  their  plumage  and 
motions. 


It  is  certain  that  the  birds  of  Paradise  have  legs,  and  these  botn 
large  and  strong  ;  but  their  flight  is  rapid  and  continuous  :  they  are 
the  swallows  of  the  tropics ;  are  seldom  seen  to  alight  ;  and,  while 
pursuing  the  insects  upon  which  they  feed,  go  through  a  vast 
number  of  the  most  beautiful  evolutions. 


767.  These  birds  do  not  bear  much  resemblance  to  an  ordinary  bird,  at  least  in 
any  part  except  the  bill,  head,  neck,  and  shoulders,  for  the  rest  of  the  body  is  hidden 
by  supplemental  feathers  issuing  from  the  flanks,  the  shoulders,  or  both,  which 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  251 


1  So  on  he  fares,  and  to  the  border  comes 
Of  Eden,  -where  delicious  Paradise, 
Now  nearer,  crowns  with  her  enclosure  green." — MILTON. 


feathers  are  so  loose,  light,  and  airy  towards  their  points  that  they  bear  some 

resemblance  to  the  tails  of  comets. 
Some  notion  of  the  general  form  of 
this  species  may  be  obtained  from 
the  annexed  figure,  representing 
the  golden  bird  of  Paradise" 
This  beautiful  deep  black  species 
is  a  native  of  New  Guinea,  and  is 
well  named  by  the  French  slfilet, 
from  the  six  slender  feathers,  three 
on  each  side  of  the  head,  which 
are  webs,  except  at  the  end 
where  they  are  without  oval.  The 
breast  has  a  rich,  gilded,  changeable 
green  gorget,  which  is  very  bril 
liant.  The  female  of  this  species 
Is  destitute  of  the  six  long  shafted  feathers  and  the  gorgeous  breast  of  the  male  ;  but 
instead,  the  feathers  on  the  neck  and  side,  and  under  parts  of  the  body,  are  of  a  very 
light  brown  colour,  transversely  marked  with  rather  wide  deep  brown  bars. 

Birds  of  Paradise,  which  are  allowed  to  exceed  all  others  in  beauty,  variety,  and 
the  peculiar  construction  of  their  plumage,  associate  in  large  flocks  in  the  delightful 
aromatic  wood&  and  groves  of  their  native  islands ;  and  the  inhabitants,  sensil  le 
of  their  charms,  give  them  the  name  of  "  God's  birds." 


768.  What  remarkable  utility  is  connected,  with  the  profuse 
plumage  of  birds  of  Paradise  ? 

We  know  too  little  of  the  habits  of  these  birds  to  recognise 
all  the  specific  purposes  their  singular  and  beautiful  plumage 
answers  ;  but  it  appears  to  be  certain  that  they  are  directed  to  their 
food  by  the  profusion  of  their  feathers. 


769.  This  extraordinary  fact  has  been  pointed  out  and  enlarged  upon  in  a  veiy 
able  mannei  in  "  Partington's  Cyclopaedia  "  : — 

"  We  know  this— the  islands  in  which  birds  of  Paradise  are  found,  are  subject  to 
alternations  of  rain  and  drought.  Further,  we  know  that  in  tropical  countries 
the  fervent  heat  of  the  rainless  period  comes  at  last  to  have  all  the  effect  of  a 
winter,  in  the  suspension  of  animal  and  vegetable  action.  As  one  part  of  those 
countries  in  which  they  have  their  haunts  becomes  parched,  the  birds  of  Paradise 
must  remove  to  another,  and  we  shall  see  that  the  profuse  feathers,  besides 
enabling  the  birds  to  rise  more  easily  and  descend  more  softly  on  their  shorten 
excursions,  in  consequence  of  the  hold  which  their  countless  floccuU  take  of  th* 


252  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  Like  birds,  great  nature's  happy  commoners,  that  haunt  In 
woods,  in  meads,  and  flow'ry  gardens,  rifle  the  sweets,  and 
taste  the  choicest  fruits,  yet  scorn  to  ask  the  lordly  owner's 
leave." — HOWE. 


air,  assiit  the  birds  in  finding  their  way  to   those   other  places  where   there  it 
food  for  them, 

"  At  those  places  where  the  earth  and  the  upper  part  of  the  forest  are  parched, 
and  the  ardour  of  the  unclouded  sun  continues  to  beat,  there  is  a  constant 
rarefaction  of  the  whole  mass  of  the  atmosphere  ;  and  in  consequence  of  this  the 
winds  from  the  more  humid  surfaces  must  bloio  towards  those  parched  placet 
with  velocities  proportional  to  the  differences  between  the  one  and  the  other. 

"  When  the  forest  which  is  the  haunt  of  these  birds  becomes  parched,  their  food 
lessens,  and  they  are  compelled  to  be  more  on  the  wing  in  searcli  after  it.  But  on 
which  side  soever  there  then  happens  to  be  a  place  more  humid,  and  more 
abounding  in  those  creatures  on  which  they  feed,  and  which  on  this  account  is 
better  suited  to  them  for  the  time,  there  is  a  wind  which  Hows  from  that  side 
towards  the  part  ivhich  is  parched  and  heated ;  and  as  the  action  of  that  wind 
upon  their  flocculent  feathers  turns  them  round  on  their  centres  of  gravity  like 
weather-cocks,  their  heads  are,  as  they  fly,  turned  to  the  wind,  and  against  the 
current.  Their  feathers  thus  assist  than  in  finding  out  the  direction  of  those 
places  where  they  can  obtain  food ;  and  though  this  is  more  remarkable  in  the  case 
of  birds  of  Paradise  than  any  other  species,  it  is  probable  that  many  of  the 
softer-feathered  birds  are  also  assisted  in  their  tropical  migrations  by  tht 
tet  of  the  wind." 


Sub-order  IV. — Tenuirostres. 
770.   Why  is  the  sub-order  Tenuirostres  so  designated? 

From  tenuis,  long,  and  rostrum,  a  beak  ;  the  birds  comprehended 
within  it  being  characterise  i  by  a  long  and  slender  bill. 


771.  They  are  also  by  some  classed  as  "  bee- eaters,"  or  "honey-suckers,'  the 
great  majority  deriving  their  subsistence  both  from  insects  and  the  nectar  of  plants, 
which  they  suck  up  by  means  of  a  long  and  filamentous  tongue.  The 
representatives  of  this  sub-order  are  the  nuthatch,  the  creeper,  the  humming-bird, 
the  chough,  and  the  hoopoe.  They  are  clearly  distinguishable  from  the  sub-order 
syndactyli  by  haying  the  toes  separated  from  each  other. 

772.  Why  is  it  essential  that  the  bodies  of  humming-birds 
should  be  motionless  in  the  air? 

Because  tj^e  humming-bird  seeks  its  food  in  the  deep  cups  and 
tubes  which  protect  the  seeds  of  various  plants  within  the  tropics. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  253 


'  Upon  mine  honour,  Sir,  I  heard  a  humming, 
And  that  a  strange  one  too,  which  did  awake  me." — SHAXSPERE. 


It  would  be  impossible  for  them  to  obtain  a  supply,  which  is  only 
to  be  found  in  these  places,  unless  they  had  some  power  of 
suspending  their  bodies  ;  for  if  they  attempted  to  rest  on  the  plant, 
it  would  yield  to  their  weight,  and  the  insect  would  escape. 

773.   Why  are  the  humming-birds  so  called  ? 

From  the  sound  produced 
by  the  rapid  motion  of  their 
wings,  this  name  is  univer 
sally  applied  ;  the  species 
being  in  the  countries  where 
they  most  abound,  known  as 
Murmunes,  bourdons,  and 
Frou-frous,  names  of  equiva 
lent  meaning. 

774.  The  velocity  with  which  these  birds  glance  through  the  air  is  so  great  as  to 
elude  the  sight — the  motion  of  their  wings  appears  like  a  thin  cloud  of  light,  and 
when  hovering  before  a  flower  they  seem  to  be  absolutely  supended  in  the  air. 

775.  Why  does  the   humming-bird,   when  molested,  fly  at   and 
p  eck  the  eyes  of  its  adversary  ? 

An  unerring  instinct  has  taught  it  that  its  feebleness  can  in  no 
letter  way  be  protected  than  by  this  method  of  attack  ? 

776.  Mr.  Bullock  says  :  "  They  attack  the  eyes  of  the  larger  birds,  and  their  sharp 
needle-like  bill  is  a  truly  formidable  weapon  in  this  kind  of  warfare.     Nothing  can 
exceed  their  fierceness  when  disturbed  during  the  breeding  season."    An  old  writer, 
Ferdinand  Ovieds,  adds  :  "When  they  see  a  man  climb  the  tree  where  they  have 
their  nests  they  flee  at  his  face  and  stryke  him  in  the  eyes,  coming,  going,  and 
returning  with  such  swiftness  that  no  man  would  rightly  believe  it  that  had 
not  seen  it." 

777.  Why  is  the  nest  of  the  humming-bird  constructed 
with  a  view  to  great  warmth,  although  within  the  tropics  ? 

Because  the  diminutive  size  of  the  bird  renders  it  incapable  of 


254  THE   REASON'   WHY   : 


"  One  part  had  the--  plumes   al  whyt,  another    hadde    them   al 
redde,  and  the  thyrde  hadde  them  oi  several  colours." — HALL. 


retaining  for  any  length  of  time  sufficient  heat  for  the  purposes 
of  incubation,  unless  this  provision  is  made. 

778.   Why  is   so  small  a    creature  as   the   humming-bird  more 
plumed  than  any  other  bird  ? 


The  probable  reason  is,  that  this  brilliancy  serves  to  attract 
around  the,  humminy-bird  the  insects  upon  which  it  partly  feeds, 
and  thus  ministers  to  its  means  of  sustenance :  as  we  see  that 
moths  and  flies  are  attracted  by  a  lighted  lamp  or  candle,  and  rush 
upon  it  to  their  own  destruction. 

779.  "  I  have  seen  the  humming-bird,"  says  Wilson,  "  for  half-an-hour  at  a  time, 
darting  at  those  little  groups  of  insects  that  dance  in  the  air  in  a  fine  summer 
evening,  retiring  to  an  adjoining  twig  to  rest,  and  renewing  the  attack  with  a 
dexterity  that  sets  all  other  fly-catchers  at  defiance." 

The  colouring  of  the  plumage  of  birds  unquestionably  depends  upon  the  sun, 
because  they  are  gay  and  glossy  in  proportion  as  they  are  exposed  to  the  action  of 
that  luminary ;  but  the  light  of  the  sun  must  have  a  substance  upon  which  it  can 
act;  and  it  appears  to  act  most  powerfully  upon  the  firm  feather  which  grows 
slowly,  and,  in  the  first  instance,  under  cover.  The  colouration  is  an  after  process, 
though  an  obscure  one,  and  one  upon  which  it  does  not  appear  easy  to  get  more 
information ;  but  it  has  no  apparent  connection  with  the  colour  oi  the  egg ;  for  the 
bee-eaters  have,  in  one  or  other  of  the  species,  all  the  colours  of  the  rainbow,  as 
brilliant  as  in  the  rainbow  itself,  and  yet  the  eggs  are  white.  Whether  the  bright 
colours  are  less  sentient  to  the  sun  than  the  more  sober  hues  of  the  birds  of  cold 
climates  we  are  unable  to  tell ;  but  the  smooth  surface  and  metallic  lustre  must 
reflect  the  light,  as  well  as  decompose  it  by  that  refraction  which  shows  the 
colours  ;  and  we  find  the  same  kinds  of  tint  and  gloss  in  the  day-insects  of  sunny 
climes,  and  in  the  birds  of  the  same.  We  may  therefore  conclude  that  the 
resplendent  plumage  of  these  birds  answers  as  a  sort  of  protection  against  the 
ardour  of  the  sun,  just  in  the  same  manner  as  the  half-furry  clothing  of  the 
northern  owls  protects  them  against  the  pelti:ig  sleet  and  the  driving  snow,  or  as 
the  down  upon  sea-birds  protects  them  against  the  action  of  the  water.* 

780.  Why  are  the  feet  of  the  creeper  very  long  and 
powerful  ? 

Because  by  their  means  the  bird  is  enabled  to  cling  to  the 
perpendicular  surface  of  trees,  and  is  enabled  to  use  its  beak  with 
great  effect  in  the  obtaining  of  its  food. 

*  Paiiington's   "  Cyclopaedia,"  Art.,   "  Bee-eater." 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  255 


"  From  purple  violets,  and  the  teile  they  bring 

Their  gathev'd  sweets,  and  rifle  all  the  spring."— ADDISON. 


781.  n-'rging  by  their  feet,  and  resting  upon  the  stiff  quills  of  their  tails,  they 
will  even  pass  round  a  horizontal  branch  with  their  backs  to  the  ground.  This  is 
of  importance  to  the  bird,  since  many  of  the  insects  forming  its  food  often  seek 
the  under  surface  of  a  branch  for  security. 

732.  Why  his  the,  nuthatch,  whose,  habits  so  closely  resemble 
the  woodpecker,  only  a  very  short  tail  ? 

Unlike  the  woodpecker,  the  nuthatch  runs  with  the  head  down 
wards  as  well  as  upwards  ;  and,  indeed,  the  former  position  of  the 
head  appears  to  be  the  favourite  one  :  it  generally  alights  on  a 
branch  with  the  head  in  a  downward  position,  and  sleeps  in  that 
posture.  A  long  tail,  therefore,  would  be  useless  to  it,  and  an 
incumbrance. 

783.  The  nuthatch,  in  procuring  its  food,  sometimes  grasps  the  tree  with  his 
powerful  feet,  and  turns  its  body  upon  them  as  upon  a  pivot,  striking  with  its 
whole  weight,  and  thus  presenting  with  its  body  the  appearance  of  the  head  of  a 
hammer  in  motion. 

784.  Why    does   the  nuthatch   make    its    nest  in    the   decayed 
trunks  of  trees  ? 

In  order  that  the  young  may  subsist  upon  the  insects  that 
inhabit  the  decayed  wood  that  surrounds  the  nest. 

785.  JVhy  is  the  rijle-bird  so  called? 

From  the  dark  tints  of  its  plumage — a  bottle-green  approaching 
to  black — and  its  habit  of  creeping  upon  the  boles  of  trees,  after 
the  manner  of  a  sharpshooter. 

786.  Mr.  Gould,  the  Australian  naturalist,  considers  the  rifle-bird  the  most 
gorgeously-plumed  of  all  the  birds  of  that  region.  The  general  colour  of  the  male 
is  a  rich  velvety  black,  varied  with  lilac  and  green.  The  female  is  less  handsomely 
furnished.  The  rifle-bird's  powers  of  flight  are  very  limited,  owing  to  the 
shortness  and  truncated  form  of  the  wing ;  but  this  structure  enables  it  to  ascend 
upright  stems  of  trees  precisely  after  the  manner  of  the  climacteri,  many  of 
whose  habits  it  possesses. 

787.   Why  is  the  hoopoe  so  named  ? 

From  its  uttering  the  song  or  cry  of  hoop,  hoop,  hoop,  as  it  sits 
perched  by  its  nest,  or  flits  alone  after  its  insect  prey. 


256 


THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  That  a  kingfishtr  hanged  by  the  bill  sheweth  in  what 
quarter  the  wind  is,  by  an  occult  and  secret  propriety,  con 
verting  the  breast  to  that  point  of  the  hori/on  from  whence 
the  wind  doth  blow,  is  a  received  opinion,  and  very  strange." 
— BROWN'S  VULGAR  ERRORS. 


Sub-order  V. — Syndactili. 

788.  Why  are  the  birds  of  this  group  called  syndactili  f 

From  two  Greek  words  meaning  and  toe,  in  allusion  to  their 
having  the  external  toe  nearly  as  long  as  the  middle  one,  and 
united  to  it,  as  far  as  the  second  joint.  Syndactylic  means 
having  the  toes  together. 

789.  The  bills  of  syndactalous  birds  differ  considerably  in  their  forms,  because 
their  food  differs  in  kind ;   and  this  difference  probably  led  Cuvier  to  name  this 
division  after  the  structure  of  the  feet,  and  not  that  of  the  bills. 


790.  What  are,  the  peculiar  examples  of  adaptation  in  the 
structure  of  kingjishers  ? 

It  is  furnished  with  a  long  sharp  bill,  admirably  adapted  for 
transfixing  fish,  as  with  a  spear  ;  and  the  plumage  is  remarkably 
smooth,  and  adapted  to  resist  the  action  of  water. 

791.  When  watching  for  its  prey,  the  kingfisher  perches  itself  upon  some  over 
hanging  branch,  with  its  long, 
dagger-like  bill  pointed  downwards, 
and  its  eye  intent  upon  the  water 
beneath.  Suddenly,  it  darts  down 
wards,  plunges  headlong  into  the 
watei-,  and  speedily  re-appears  with 
a  minnow  or  other  small  fish 
between  its  mandibles.  Without 
loosing  its  hold,  it  passes  the  fish 
through  its  bill  until  it  is  fairly 
j  grasped  by  the  tail,  and  then  de 
stroys  the  life  of  its  victim  by 
smartly  striking  its  head  three  or 
four  times  against  a  branch,  aftei 
which  it  gulps  its  prey  at  one 
mouthful,  except  when  it  is  borm 
away  to  the  nest  for  the  supply  of 
the  young. 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  257 


"  For  both  the  boughs  doe  laughing  blossoms  beare, 
And  with  fresh  colours  deck  the  wanton  prime, 
And  eke  at  once  the  heavy  trees  they  clime, 
Which  sccme  to  labour  under  their  fruite's  lode." — SPKNSEB. 

792.  Why  has  the  Icing  fisher  remarkably  small  feet  ? 

Because  the  habits  of  the  bird  are  neither  those  of  wading, 
walking,  nor  standing ;  but  simply  of  perching  upon  the  points  of. 
small  twigs  that  overhang  the  water.  The  kingfisher  watches 
patiently,  generally  from  a  naked  twig,  and  when  it  quits  that,  flies 
immediately  to  a  similar  station. 

The  feet  of  the  kingfisher,  which  at  first  appear  very  imperfect, 
and  totally  unfit  for  ordinary  purposes,  are,  in  fact,  excellently 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  bird. 

793.  Why  are  the  bee-eaters  so  catted  ? 

Because  bees  form  a  considerable  part  of  their  food,  though 
they  devour  also  wasps,  hornets,  and  various  other  insects  of 
comparatively  long  and  rapid  flight. 

ORDER  III.— SCANSORES. 

794.  WJiy  is  the  third  order  of  birds  termed  scansores  ? 

The  word  scansores  is  derived  from  the  Latin  scando,  to  climb 
and  implies  that  these  birds  live  and  obtain  their  food  in  a 
scaling  position. 


795.  Their  feet  are  adapted  for  clinging  to  the  bark  of  trees  ;  and  they  ascend  the 
stems  and  branches  with  great  facility.  Their  food,  for  the  most  part,  consists  of 
insects,  which  they  search  for  in  the  crevices  and  underneath  the  bark  of  unsound 
trees,  or  in  the  wood  of  such  as  exhibit  symptoms  of  decay.  They  also  occasion 
ally  eat  fruit.  The  order  is  very  extensive,  comprehending  the  ivoodpecker, 
the  cuckoo,  the  parrot,  macaws,  love  birds,  cockatoos,  toucans,  lories,  &c. 


796.   Why  is  the  name  "  zygodactyli  "  also  given  by  ornithologists 
to  the  scansores,  or  climbers  ? 

Because  of  a  peculiarity  in  the  feet ;  two  of  their  toes  being 
directed  forwards,  and  two  backwards. 


258  THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  Rap,  rap,  rap,  rap,  I  hear  thy  knocking  bill, 

Tlien  thy  strange  outcry,  when  the  woods   are  still." —  MONTGOMERY. 


The  word  zygodactyli  is  compounded  of  zygoo,  "to  join"  and 
daktylos,  a  finger. 

797.  WTiy  are  .the    supposed  ravages  of  woodpeckers   beneficial 
rather  than  otherwise? 

Because  they  bore  only  those  trees  which  insects  have  previously 
attacked,  and  thus  diminish  very  considerably  the  numbers  of  such 
as  are  injurious  to  our  forests. 

798.  Why  are  the  extremities  of  the  feathers  in  the  tail  of  the 
woodpecker  hard  and  elastic  like  whalebone,  and  with   the  shaft 
particularly  prominent  ? 

Because  this  quality  in  the  bird's 
tail  affords  &  prop,  OT  fulcrum,  as  it 
rests  against  a  tree  ;  and  no  other 
contrivance  could  enable  the  bird  to 
maintain  its  position  when  throwing 
back  its  head  to  give  due  force  to 
the  bill  in  hammering  at  the  bark 
of  the  tree. 


799.  Why  is  tlie  bill  of  the  parrot  so  thick  and  powerful  ? 

This  member,  so  unlike  that  of  other  frugivorous  birds,  is 
admirably  calculated  for  the  principal  offices  it  has  to  perform, 
viz.,  breaking  the  shells  and  stones  of  the  hardest  fruits  and  seeds, 
and  as  a  strong  organ  of  prehension  and  support  when  climbing  or 
moving  from  one  position  to  another. 

800.  In  their  native  woods,  the  movements  of  the  parrot  tribe  are  marked  by  an 
ease  and  gracefulness  we    never  see  exhibited  in  a  state  of  confinement.     They 
climb  about  the  branches  in  every  direction,  and  suspend  themselves  from  them  in 
every  possible  attitude,  hi  all  which  movements  they  are  greatly  assisted  by  their 
booked  bills,  which  are  used,  like  the  foot,  as  an  organ  of  prehension  and  support.* 

*  naturalists'  Library. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  259 


In  painted  plumes  superbly  drest 

A  native  of  the  gorgeous  East, 
Poll  gains  at  length  the  British  shore, 

Part  of  the  captain's  precious  store." — COWPER. 

^^^^^f^f^^^^^^U^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

801.  WJiy  is  a  parrot  able  to  move  its  bill  with  unusual  force, 
and  to  peck  out  and  divide  its  food  with  extreme  nicety  ? 

Because  loth  mandibles  of  the  parrot's  beak  are  moveable  (most 
birds  being  able  to  move  only  one),  and  are  endowed  with  a  large 
amount  of  muscular  power. 

802.  The  fleshy  tongues  of  parrots  are  as  peculiar  as  their  bills,  and  are  very  useftu 
to  the  hirds  in  turning  a  nut,  or  other  food,  into  a  convenient  position  for  the  power 
of  the  hill  to  bear  upon  it.  The  fleshy  tongue  is  found  in  all  parrots,  excepting  the 
Australian  group,  called  the  loniqets,  which  hirds  feed  on  the  honey  of  flowers, 
and  have  tongues  formed  with  bristles  like  a  brush,  with  which  they  sweep 
together  the  honey. 

803.  Why  has  each  species  of  the  parrot  tribe  its  own  peculiar 
residence,  and  a  very  limited  distribution  around  it? 

This  is  partly  accounted  for  by  the  shortness  of  the  wings,  and  the 
want  of  power  of  flight,  which  prevent  their  migration  ;  but  it  is 
partly  due  also  to  the  adaptation  of  each  species  to  a  peculiarity  of 
conditions,  which  would  not  be  met  with  elsewhere. 

804.  Why  among  the  parrot  tribes  are  there  marked  differences 
in  the  forms  of  their  feet  ? 

Because,  as  there  are  various  kinds  of  trees  and  plants  upon 
which  they  live,  so  a  tfffiwntform  and  development  of  the  climbing 
organs  is  necessary  to  acutot  the  bird  to  its  habitation. 

805.  Those  who  have  examined  the  tropical  forests,  mention  that  there  appears  to 
be  a  species  of  parrot  adapted  for  each  of  the  more  conspicuous  kind  of  trees  which 
are  to  be  met  with  in  those  forests.     Thus,  if  the  tree  is  a  palm,  or  anything  else 
which  has  a  single  stem,  and  can  afford  nourishment  for  a  bird  only  at  or  near  the 
top  of  that  stem,  then  the  species  of  parrot  set  over  it  to  consume  the  surplus  of  its 
fruit  is  an  air  bird,  capable  of  flying  over  the  forest  in  search  of  such  trees  ;  and, 
when  this  is  the  case,  the  body  of  the  bird  is  lighter  in  proportion  to  its  lineal 
dimensions,  and  us  tail  is  generally  very  much  produced,  which  assists  it  m  ascending 
and  descending.    On  the  other  hand,  the  short-flighted  parrots,  which  inhabit  trees 
which  are  very  m-uch  branched,  and  bear  fruit  in  the  axillae  of  the  leaves  of  the 
smaller  twigs,  have  tKe  bodies  stouter  in  proportion  to  the  dimensions,  the  tail 


260  THE    REASON    N\  I1Y  : 


"  Words  learn'd  by  rot^  a  parrot  may  rehearse, 
But  talking1  is  not  always  to  converse; 
Not  more  distinct  from  harmony  divine, 
The  constant  creaking  of  a  country  sign." — COWPEK. 

shorter,  and  th~  feathers  more  firm  and  scaly.  Parrots  of  this  last  description 
inhabit  regions  which  are  more  perennially  fertile  than  those  inhabited  by  the 
former,  -whose  more  produced  flying  feathers  and  lighter  bodies,  and,  generally 
spoaking,  also  their  more  vigorous  make,  fit  them  better  for  ranging  into  a  new 
locality  when  food  fails  them  in  the  old  one ;  and  also  for  making  daily  excursions 
of  considerable  length  over  the  fields  in  the  vicinity  of  those  trees  wherein  they 
roost  during  the  night.* 

606.   Wliy  are,  the  macaws  so  named  ? 

The  name  is  derived  from  macro  and  cercus,  the  latter  having 
reference  to  the  large  naked  space  on  the  cheek  and  around 
the  eye. 

807.  Wliy    are  parrots,  in   their  natural  distribution,  limited 
to  tropical  climates  ? 

Because  they  are  almost  exclusively  vegetable  feeders,  the 
kernels  of  fruits,  and  the  buds  and  flowers  of  trees,  being  the 
chief  sources  on  which  they  depend  for  their  nourishment.  They 
are  therefore  unfitted  for  a  locality  where  the  woods  are  for 
several  months  of  the  year  fruitless,  flowerless,  and  leafless. 

808.  Why  do  parrots  suffer    less  from  confinement   than   birds 
in  general  ? 

Because  birds  of  flight,  when  brought  within  the  narrow  limits 
of  a  cage,  lose  their  necessary  exercise.  But  parrots,  being 
climbing  birds,  are  able  to  a  great  extent  to  keep  up  the 
movements  of  the  natural  condition. 

809.  Why  do  parrots  gnaw  and  chip  pieces  of  wood? 

The  propensity  which  the  whole  of  the  parrot  tribe  have  for 
biting  wood,  and  throwing  the  bits  away,  suggests  that  they 
perform  a  very  useful  function  in  the  scheme  of  nature. 

In  their  distribution  they  are  limited  to  tropical  climatea. 
Partington's  "Cyclopaedia.'' 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  261 

"  O  who  would  e'er  have  thought  that  time  could  have  decay'd 
Those  trees  whose  bodies  seemed  by  their  so  massy  weight 
To  press  the  solid  earth,  and  with  their  wondrous  height 
To  climb  into  the  clouds."— DRAYTOX. 

and  in  those  climates  to  localities  where  the  vegetation  is  so 
'uxuriant  that  the  forests  are  impenetrable  by  man. 

It  is  the  office  of  the  parrot  tribes  to  keep  in  check  this  excessive 
vegetation,  and  to  prune  the  trees  which  they  inhabit.  A  parrot  in 
the  woods  has  harder  labour  to  perform  than  almost  any  other  bird 
which  lives  upon  vegetable  matter.  And  it  is  remarkable  that 
they  gnaw  and  chip  wood,  not  for  the  purposes  of  appetite  ;  but 
because  this  occupation  affords  them  a  great  degree  of  pleasure. 

Through  this  biting  propensity,  they  contribute  to  the  removal 
of  decayed  trees,  by  enlarging  the  holes  in  their  trunks,  and 
exposing  the  woody  fibre  to  the  action  of  the  rain 
and  atmosphere. 

810.  What  important  advantage   does   the  parrot   derive  from 
the  moveability  of  its  upper  mandible? 

The  upper  mandible  being  moveable,  and  not,  as  in  other  birds, 
united  to  the  cranium,  prevents  pressure  or  concussion  being 
communicated  to  the  brain,  while  the  bird  performs  the  arduous 
gnawing  task  assigned  to  it. 

811.  Why  are  paraquettes  so  called? 

The  term  may  be  considered  as  a  diminutive  of  parrot,  and  is 
used  to  distinguish  the  smaller  birds  of  the  parrot  tribes. 

812.  Why  are  paraquettes  abundant  in  America. 

In  the  great  western  valley  of  the  United  States,  there  grows 
a  wild  plant,  of  the  composite  order,  known  as  the  cocldt^burr. 
The  seeds  of  these  plants  are  the  favourite  food  of  paraquettes. 
But  for  the  check  afforded  by  these  birds  to  the  diffusion  of  this 
plant,  it  would  probably  spread  itself  over  every  piece  of  ground 
which  man  has  cleared  of  timber,  or  reclaimed  from  being 
a  swamp. 

813.  Why  does  the  parrot  construct  no  nest? 

The  soft  dust  accumulated  at  the  bottom  of   the  trunks  of 


IEASOX    WHY  : 


The  time  shall  come  when  chanticleer  shall  wish 

His  words  unsaid,  and  hate  his  boasted  bliss : 

The  crested  bird  shall  by  experience  know, 

Jove  made  him  not  his  master-piece  below." — DRYDBW. 


decayed  trees  suffices  for  all  the  purposes  of  a  nest,  and  precludes 
the  necessity  of  any  artificial  contrivance. 

814.  The  instinctive  liking  for  such  a  bed  does  not  desert  it  in  a  state  of  captivity. 
Buffon  mentions  a  pair  of  parrots  in  France,  that  for  several  years  successively 
produced  and  brought  up  their  young.  The  place  they  selected  for  this 
purpose  was  a  cask  partially  filled  with  sawdust. 

815.   Why   are   cockatoos   so   called  f 


Because  of  the  peculiarly  dis 
tinct  manner  in  which  they 
speak  the  word  cockatoo,  though 
generally  they  are  less  capable  of 
articulating  sounds  than  the 
true  parrot.  Cockatoos  are  dis 
tinguished  from  true  parrots,  and 
all  others,  by  a  crest,  or  tuft  of 
feathers  on  the  head,  which  they 
can  raise  or  depress  at  pleasure. 


816.  Why  is  the  toucan  tribe  so  named? 

From  the  cry  tu-cdno  which  it  utters  when  upou  ft-a  watch, 
or  when  apprehensive  of  danger. 

817.  Wliy  does  the  toucan  toss  back  its  head  wht'it  eating 

This  habit  is  rendered  necessary  by  the  length  of  tit  bill,  and 
the  stiffness  of  the  tongue,  which  prevent  their  eating  as 
other  birds  :  they  therefore,  when  the  morsel  has  received  its 
first  mastication,  throw  it  into  the  gullet  with  a  smart  jerk. 

818.  The  toucan  has  a  practice  of  returning  his  food,  some  time  aftr*  ho  has 
transmitted  it  to  his  crop ;  and,  after  masticating  it  for  a  second  time  in  the  hill, 
again  swallowing  it;   the  whole  operation  bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  *he 
process  in  ruminating  animals. 


NATURAL   HISTORI.  263 


"  The  merry  cuckowr,  messenger  of  spring, 

His  trumpet  shrill  has  thrice  already  sounded ; 
That  warnes  all  louvers  waite  upon  their  king, 

Who  now  is  coming  forth  -with  girland  crowned." — SPENSER. 

819.   Why  has  the  toucan  such  an  immense  bill? 

In  order  to  enable  it  to  procure  its  food,  consisting  of  small 
birds  and  their  eggs,  found  in  deep  nests,  and  various  hard 
vegetable  substances. 

820.  The  bill  of  the  toucan,  although  large — in  some  instances  being  nearly  a» 
long  as  the  body  itself— is  light  and  cellular.  It  'serves  as  a  hatchet,  and  at  the 
same  time  has  all  the  delicate  action  of  a  very  neat  pair  of  pliers.  The  toucan  is 
not  a  swift  or  powerful  flyer ;  but  its  motions,  as  it  hops  from  branch  to  branch,  are 
not  ungraceful.  The  bill  is,  in  fact,  no  incumbrance  to  the  bird,  however  ill  its 
appearance  may  suit  with  our  ideas  of  proportion. 

821.  Why  is  it  ordained  that   the  cuckoo  should    deposit  its 
eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  birds  ? 

Because  the  cuckoo  is  the  largest  of  insectivorous  birds,  and 
requires  a  great  quantity  of  food,  which,  like  the  swallow,  it 
must  make  constant  search  for.  If  cuckoos  sat  upon  their 
eggs,  they  would  be  unable  to  obtain  this  large  supply ; 
and  if  they  left  their  eggs  to  search  for  food,  the  eggs  would 
become  chilled  while  they  were  on  the  wing. 

822.  Why  does    the    cuckoo    drop   Tier    eggs   into   the   nests    of 
birds  smaller  than  herself? 

Because  if  she  were  to  drop  her  eggs  into  the  nest  of  a  bird 
which  produced  a  large  egg,  and  consequently  a  large  nestling,  the 
young  cuckoo  would  probably  find  an  insurmountable  difficulty  in 
solely  possessing  the  nest,  as  its  exertions  would  be  unequal  to  the 
labour  of  turning  out  the  young  birds. 

823.  Why  does  the  female  cuckoo  deposit  her  eggs  in  the  nests  oj 
the  sparrow,  the  wagtail,  &c.,  which  are  disproportionately  small ; 
and  pass  by  the  nests  of  the  blackbird,  thrush,  &c.,  which  appear 
to  be  better  adapted  for  the  purpose  ? 

Because  the  various  insects  and  flies  upon  which  the  sparrow, 
toagtwil,  &c.,  feed,  form  the  best  kind  of  jood,  upon  which  tbe 


264 


THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  Since  the  cuckoo  builds  not  for  himself, 
Remain  in't  as  thou  may'st." — SHAKSPERE. 


young  cuckoos  can  be  reared.  Whilst  the  aliment  upon  which  the 
Hackbird  and  the  thrush  usually  subsist  is  not  proper,  and  in 
some  respects  would  be  injurious. 


824.  When  the  cuckoo  is  hatched 
previously  to  the  offspring  of  its  fos 
ter-parent,  it  throws  the  unhatched 
eggs  out  of  the  nest  by  means  of 
its  broad  and  depressed  beak.  It 
•visits  its  lay  companions  with  the 
same  treatment ;  and,  admitting  no 
rival,  monopolises  all  the  room  and 
all  the  food  to  itself;  and  such 
is  the  voracity  of  this  bird,  that 
the  most  untiring  zeal  and  labour  of 
the  foster-parent  are  scarcely  able  to 
satisfy  the  cravings  of  the  intruder. 


825.  Why  does  the  cuckoo  deposit  her  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other 
birds  with  her  foot? 

Because  if  the  cuckoo  sat  upon  the  adopted  nest  while  laying 
the  egg,  the  weight  of  its  body  would  derange  the  nest, 
and  cause  it  to  be  forsaken  ;  thus  defeating  one  of  the  ends 
of  Providence. 

826.  Why  do  injuries  so  frequently  occur  to  the  eggs  of  those 
birds  in  whose  nests  cuckoos  lay  ? 

These  accidents  are  chiefly  owing  to  the  setting  bird  attempting 
to  accommodate  herself  to  eggs  of  different  sizes. 

If  comparatively  large  and  small  eggs  are  placed  in  the  same 
nest,  some  of  the  smaller  ones  are  generally  thrown  out,  or  rendered 
addle,  by  the  hen  bird  endeavouring  to  arrange  them  so  that  she 
may  distribute  nearly  an  equal  degree  of  warmth  and  pressure  to 
ill :  but  the  larger  ones,  which  chiefly  sustain  her  weight,  and 
ionsequently  are  less  liable  to  be  moved,  usually  remain  uninjured. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  265 


"  Harsh  your  /ore-notes  thrill, 
To  me  no  pleasure  Nature  now  can  yield; 
Alike  the  barren  rock  and  woody  hill, 
The  dark-brown  blasted  heath  and  fruitful  field." — CHATTERTOH. 

When  the  eggs  of  birds  are  exchanged  for  others  of  a  uniform 
magnitude,  or  provided  the  difference  is  not  so  great  as  to  occasion 
them  to  be  forsaken,  no  disturbance  ensues,  whatever  their 
colour  may  be,  the  change  either  not  being  perceived,  or 
totally  disregarded. 

827.  Wliy  do  birds  of  the  cuckoo  kind  perch  upon  the  backs  of 
oxen  while  grazing? 

Many  of  them  eat  the  insects  which  infest  cattle  ;  and  the  latter 
are  so  well  aware  of  the  fact,  as  well  as  grateful  for  it,  that  they 
frequently  lie  down,  in  order  that  the  bird  may  devour  its  prey 
undisturbed. 

828.  Why  is  the  bird  known  as  the  wry-neck  so  called? 

Because  it  has  a  habit  of  moving  its  head  in  various  directions, 
not  unlike  a  snake  ;  this  is  especially  the  case  when  discovered 
in  its  nest,  upon  which  occasions  it  writhes  its  head  quickly 
from  shoulder  to  shoulder,  with  strange  and  apparently  painful 
contortions. 

829.  Why  are  love-birds  so  named  ? 

From  the  singular  degree  of  attachment  to  each  other  which 
they  manifest ;  sitting  closely  side  by  side  caressing  each  other, 
arranging  each  other's  plumage,  and  exhibiting  various  marks  oi 
mutual  regard. 

830.  Why  is  the  oven  bird  so  designated  f 
From  the  singular  oven-like  form  of  its  nest. 

831.  it  is  a  native  of  South  America,  but  is  occasionally  found  in  Southern 
Europe.  The  nest,  whence  it  takes  its  name,  is  placed  in  the  most  exposed 
situations,  as  the  top  of  a  post,  a  bare  rock,  or  a  cactus.  It  is  composed  of  mud 
and  bits  of  straw,  and  has  strong,  thick  walls  :  in  shape  it  precisely  resembles  aa 
even,  or  a  depressed  bee -hive.  The  opening  is  large  and  arched,  and  directly  in 
front.  Within  the  nest  there  is  a  partition  which  reaches  nearly  to  the  roof  :  thu» 
forming  a  passage,  or  anti-chamber,  to  the  true  nest. 

12 


266  THE   REASON  WHY  : 


Whilst  wheeling  round  in  airy  wanton  flights, 

The  glossy  pigeons  chase  their  sportive  loves." — DODSLEY. 


ORDER  IV.— GYRATORES. 

832.  Why  is  the  order  gyratores  thus  designated  ? 

From  the  word  gyratio,  a  "  turning"  or  "  wheeling  round."  It 
refers  to  the  ordinary  mode  of  flight  displayed  by  the  birds 
included  in  the  order. 

833.  Why    has    the     pigeon   tribe     a    puffed-out     appearance 
about   the  breast  ? 

This  arises  from  the  presence  of  its  unusually  large  crop ;  an 
organ  which  is  capable  of  some  of  the  uses  of  the  paps 
in  mammalia. 

834.  By  what  remarkable  process  are  the   young  pigeons  and 
other  birds  of  the  dove-kind  fed  by  their  parents  ? 

The  parents  of  the  dove  kind  support  their  young  with  the 
curd-like  contents  of  their  crops,  as  the  mammalia  do  with  milk 
in  the  early  stages  of  the  existence  of  their  offspring. 

835.  This  is  performed  by  the  faculty  which  the  parent  birds  possess  of  throwing 
up  the  contents  of  their  crops,  which  assume  the  appearance  of  a  granulated  white 
curd.  It  would  appear  that  the  young  pigeon  is  fed  for  a  little  time  Avith  this 
cui'd-like  substance  only,  for  about  the  third  day  some  of  the  common  food  is  found 
mingled  Avith  it.  As  the  pigeon  grows  older,  the  proportion  of  common  food  is 
increased ;  so  that,  by  the  time  it  is  seven,  eight,  or  nine  days  old,  the  secretion  of 
tne  curd  cea?es  in  the  old  bird,  and  of  course  no  more  will  be  found  in  the  crop  of 
the  young.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  the  parent  pigeon  has,  at  first,  a  power  to 
throw  up  this  curd  without  any  mixture  of  common  food,  although,  afterwards, 
both  are  thrown  up  according  to  the  proportion  required  for  the  young  ones. 

No  young  birds  are  in  so  forlorn  a  state  as  young  pigeons,  if  the  parents  are  killed 
before  the  young  can  provide  for  themselves.  Birds  of  other  species,  stimulated 
by  the  cries  of  the  helpless  young  which  have  been  deprived  of  parental  aid,  can 
and  do  assist  the  little  starvelings ;  but  none  except  an  old  pigeon,  with  its  crop  in  a 
proper  state,  can  save  the  life  of  a  nestling  dove. 

836.  Why  is  the  plumage  of  the  rock  pigeon  very  close 
and  compact? 

They  are  thus  furnished  to  enable  them  to  encounter  the  s&wrt 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  267 


"  One  silent  eve  I  wander'd  late, 
And  heard  the  voice  of  love ; 
The  turtle  thus  addrcss'd  her  mate, 
And  soothed  the  listening  dove." — COWPER. 


storms    which    they  often    experience,    at    those    places    \vhere 
they  frequent. 

837.  It  does  not  appear  that  there  is,  generally  speaking,  much  food  for  them  in 
tbe  close  vicinity  of  the  rocks — their  natural  habitations.  But,  in  order  to  keep  up 
the-  powerful  and  long-continued  muscular  action  which  they  must  exert,  they 
require  a  high  degree  of  action  in  the  vital  system,  and  consequently  a  copious 
and  freqmnt  supply  of  food.  In  order  to  obtain  this,  they  must  range  about  in 
all  weathers,  and  consequently  they  require  to  be  warmly  as  well  as 
ejinpactly  clothed. 

838.   Why  is  the  plumage  of  the  pigeon  tribe  of  a  sombre  hue  ? 

Thsir  food  consists  chiefly  of  grain,pulse,  acorns,  beech-nuts,  and 
other  seeds,  and  occasionally  the  tender  shoots  of  particular  plants. 
These  they  gather  on  the  ground,  and  hence  the  colour  of  their 
plumage  is  so  ordered  as  not  to  be  readily  distinguishable  from 
the  vegetation  among  which  they  feed. 

839.  The  structure  of  the  pigeon  tribe  manifestly  displays  the  unerring  provision 
of  Nature.  Their  bills  are  slender,  though  still  of  average  strength,  for  they  have 
no  nuts  or  fruits  to  break.  Their  tails  are  generally  square,  and  their  wings  strong 
and  pointed,  thus  fitting  them  for  long  and  arduous  nights. 

840.  Why    does     the    rock   pigeon    prefer,     among    artificial 
pigeon-houses,  one  that  has  been  whitewashed  ? 

There  may  be  two  reasons  for  this  :  first,  the  whitened  pigeon- 
house  is  a  more  conspicuous  object  than  the  other  ;  and  secondly, 
a  considerable  quantity  of  carbonate  of  lime,  may  be  required  for 
the  eggs  of  the  female,  which,  though  only  two  in  each  batch,  are 
often  numerous  in  the  course  of  the  year.  This  the  bird  obtains 
by  pecking  at  the  lime. 

841.  Why  is  the  rock  pigeon,  which  never  feeds  upon  fish,  seen 
to  walk  and  pick  upon  the  sea-beach  ? 

Probably  for  the  purpose  of  taking  into  its  crop  bits  of  shell 
Gxd  small  slonc.it,  as  means  towards  the  digestion  of  its  food. 


268 


THE    REASON    -WHY  : 


;  I  have  heard  her  with  sweetness  unfold 

How  tiiat  pity  was  due  to  a  dove  / 
That  it  ever  attended  the  bold, 
And  she  called  it  the  sister  of  love."— SHENSTONE. 


842.  Why  does  the  ringdove  feed  greedily,  and  get  very  fat,  in 
the  autumn  months  ? 

In  order  to  be  better  prepared  for  enduring  the  severer  and  less 
abundant  months  of  winter. 

843.  In  autumn  the  ring  pigeons  begin  to  associate  in  flocks.  At  first  they  feed 
upon  the  fruits  of  forest  trees,  and  particularly  the  beech-mast,  which  at  that 
time  is  strewed  upon  the  ground.  The  grains  and  seeds  left,  and  small  fallen  fruits, 
are  their  first  subsistence  ;  but,  as  they  are  ravenous  feeders,  they,  if  in  great 
numbers,  speedily  exhaust  these.  After  this,  they  migrate  farther  south,  and 
attack  the  more  succulent  green  leaves  which  remain  in  the  fields — such 
as  those  of  field-greens,  turnips,  and  mangold-wurtzel. 

844.  Why  does  the  dove  tribe  seek  the  vicinity  of  man,  so  as 
to   prefer    an    artificial   pigeon-house    to    its   native   haunts   in 
rocks,  &c. 

The  feet  of  the  dove,  or  common  pigeon,  are  walking  feet,  with 
very  little  of  the  perching  character.  The  external  and  internal 
front  toes  are  of  equal  length,  the  hind  toe  is  short,  and  the  claws 
are  not  hooked,  as  in  the  decided  perchers,  but  so  placed  as  that 
the  foot  may  be  wholly  planted  upon  the  ground.  Hence  A 
regularly  formed  ground  may  have  a  charm  for  the  pigeon,  which 
its  wild  rocks  cannot  supply. 

845.  IVhy  are  the  notes  of  the  wood-pigeon  commonly  associated 
with  gentleness  and  love? 


Because  the  cooings  of 
these  birds  accord  so  inti 
mately  with  our  conception 
of  all  that  is  gentle  and 
innocent,  that  one  cannot 
listen  to  them  without  being 
impressed  with  feelings  which 
no  other  sounds  in  nature, 
save  that  of  the  human 
voice  itself,  could  inspire. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


O,  ten  times  faster  than  Venus'  pigeons  fly 

To  seal  love's  bonds  new  made,  than  they  are  wont 

To  keep  obliged  faith  forfeited." — SHAKSI-EHE. 


846.  A  man,  who  was  once  3  pirate,  declared  that  several  times  while  at  certain 
aclls  dug  in  the  burning  shel'/  sands  of  a  well-known  bay,  the  soft  and  melancholy 
cry  of  the  wood-pigeons  aw  ice  in  his  breast  feelings  which  had  long  slumbered, 
melted  his  heart  to  repe?;tance,   and  caused  him    to    linger   at   the  spot    in   a 
state  of  mind  which  he  only  •«  no  compares  the  wretchedness  of  guilt  with  the 
happiness  of  former  innocence  can  truly  feel.     He  said  he  never  left  the  place 
without  increased  fears  of  futurity ;  and  so  deeply  was  he  moved  at  length  by  the 
notes  of  this  bird,  that  through  their  influence  he  was  induced  to  escape  from  his 
vessel,   abandon  his   lawless   companions,  and  return  to  a  family  deploring  his 
absence.     After  paying  a  parting  visit  to  these  wells,  and  listening  once  more  to 
the  voice  of  the  bird,  he  poured  out  his  soul  in  supplications  for  mercv,  and  once 
more  became  an  honest  man. 

847.  Why  is  the  song  of  the  ringed  pigeon  heard  at  intervals 
only  of  the  spring  and  autumn  ? 

Because,  except  when  engaged  in  constructing  its  nest,  or  the 
process  of  incubation  and  the  rearing  of  its  young,  this  bird  utters 
no  note  :  these  cares  over,  it  retires  to  the  woods,  and  is  silent 
until  the  breeding-time  again  commences. 

848.  WJiy  do  pigeons  return  to  the  place  from  u'hich  they  set 
out,  after  having  accomplished  a  long  journey  ? 

Because  these  birds  are 
conspicuous  for  their  strong 
attachment  to  locality  or 
home.  And  in  training  them 
to  carry  missives,  &c.  the 
bird  is  tried  at  easy  dis 
tances,  which  are  gradually 
extended  until  twenty  or 
thirty  miles  are  accom 
plished  successfully,  and 
when  this  distance  has  been 
attained,  the  pigeon  wiU 
travel  to,  and  return  from,  any  spot,  however  remote. 

849.  The  following  anecdotes  will  be  found  to  illustrate  the  wonderful  faculty  of 
the  carrier  pigeon : — In  the  year  1819,  an  experiment  was  tried  between  London 
uul  Antwerp.  Thirty-two  pigeons  with  the  word  "Antwerp"  marked  on  their 


270  THE   REASON   WHY. 

"  Say,  mid  that  grove,  in  love-lorn  state, 
"While  yon  poor  rinif-dorr  mourns  her  mate, 
Is  all  that  meets  the  shepherd's  ear, 
Inspired  by  anguish  and  despair?" — MASON. 

wings,  and  which  had  been  reared  in  that  city,  were  let  loose  in  London  at  se^en 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  after  having  their  wings  counter-marked  "  London."  The 
*ame  day,  towards  noon,  one  arrived  at  home  ;  a  quarter  of  an  hour  afterwards, 
another  arrived.  The  following  day  twelve  others  returned,  making  fourteen  in 
all;  of  the  fate  of  the  rest  no  tidings  were  gleaned.  In  July,  1829,  anothei 
experiment  was  made,  in  consequence  of  some  wagers  laid  at  Maestricht  between 
some  merchants  there,  that  pigeons  taken  to  London  would,  when  let  loose,  return 
in  six  hours.  Forty-two  pigeons  were  accordingly  brought  to  London,  and  after 
be'ng  properly  marked,  were  thrown  up  at  twenty-six  minutes  past  eight  in  the 
mrrning.  If  anyone  of  the  number  had  arrived  at  Maestricht  within  six  hours, 
the  principal  wager,  which  was  for  10,000  guilders,  would  have  been  gained;  but 
in  consequence,  as  it  was  supposed,  of  a  heavy  rain,  the  first  did  not  arrive  till  six 
hours  and  a  quarter  from  the  time  when  it  left  London,  having,  nevertheless, 
travelled  at  the  rate  of  forty-five  miles  an  hour,  assuming  that  the  journey  was 
performed  in  a  straight  line.  The  second  arrived  in  seven  hours,  the  third  in  seven 
hours  and  ten  minutes,  the  fourth  in  seven  hours  and  a  half,  and  in  four  days  more 
than  twenty  had  returned.  The  missing  birds  are  supposed  to  have  met  with 
accidents,  which  might  be  reasonably  supposed  to  occur  in  such  a  long  journey, 
such  as  being  shot,  or  to  have  taken  up  their  abode  with  wild  flocks  on 
thc-ir  way. 

850.  Why  does  the  form  of  the  ring-dove  become  considerably 
changed  in  the  evening  ? 

Because,  when  they  have  fed  upon  turnip-tops  and  other  vege 
tables  during  the  day,  the  crop  becomes  so  distended  with  food,  a? 
to  give  to  the  fore  part  of  the  body  a  very  full  appearance. 
Tne  contents  of  the  stomach  having  been  digested  during  the  night 
the  body  regains  its  ordinary  proportions. 


851.  Why  is  the  flesh  of  the  wild  pigeon  less  delicate  and 
palatable,  than  that  of  the  tamed  variety. 

Because  the  violent  and  frequently  repeated  exercise  to  which 
they  are  subjected  hardens  the  muscles  of  birds  in  a  state 
of  nature. 


852.  If  the  birds  are  brought  up  from  their  earliest  stage,  and  kept  upon  rich 
pastures  where  they  have  occasion  to  use  the  wing  but  little,  the  tenderness  and 
?lso  the  flavour  of  their  flesh  are  greatly  unproved. 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  271 


"  The  careful  hen 

Calls  all  her  chirping  family  around, 
Fed  and  defended  by  the  fearless  cock, 
Whose  breast  with  ardour  flames,  as  on  he  walks, 
Graceful,  and  crows  defiance." — THOMSOK. 


ORDER  V.— BASQUES. 

853.    IVTiy  is  the  order  rasores  so  called? 

From  rado,  to  scrape  or  scratch,  the  birds  of  this  order  compre 
hending  the  gallinaceous  tribe  being  distinguished  by  their  habit 
of  scraping  the  earlh,  to  obtain  food. 

854.  They  are  omnivorous;  living  equally  upon  seeds,  grains,  and  insects.  It  ie 
to  this  order  that  most  of  our  domestic  birds,  the  feathered  tenants  of  the  farm 
yard,  belong;  and  also  most  of  those  unreclaimed  by  man,  celebrated  for  the 
excellency  of  their  flesh,  as  the  arouse,  partridge,  quail,  and  pheasant. 

855.  Why  do  gallinaceous  and  other  birds  pick  up  small 
stones,  bits  of  shells,  &c.,  and  gravel,  which  are  afterwards 
found  embedded  in  their  gizzards? 

The  gizzard  is  a  fleshy  stomach,  the  substance  of  which  con 
sists  of  a  strong  muscle  ;  the  dark  part  of  the  gizzard  being  the 
muscle,  and  the  shining  part  of  it  the  tendon  to  which  the 
muscular  fibres  are  attached  Birds  pick  up  small  fragments  of 
stone,  which  pass  with  the  grain  to  the  gizzard,  and  there  become 
the  mean's  of  grinding  the  food  upon  which  the  birds  subsist. 

856.  There  are  two  muscles,  with  a  central  tendon  ;  it  is  what  anatomists  call  a 
digastric,  or  double-bellied  stomach. 

The  cavity  within  this  muscle  is  lined  with  a  dense,  rough,  insensible  coat,  and 
there  are  always  to  be  found  contained  in  it  small  stones,  generally  of  quartz,  if  it 
be  within  the  reach  of  the  bird. 

The  grams  are  mixed  with  these  portions  of  stone ;  and  if  we  place  our  ear  close 
to  the  bird,  we  may  hear  the  grinding  motions  going  on  as  distinctly  as  the 
noise  of  the  horse's  jaws  in  a  manger. 

In  fact,  this  digastric  muscle,  or  gi/zard,  is  equivalent  to  the  muscles  of  the  jaws, 
and  the  pebbles  are  a  fair  equivalent  to  the  teeth,  with  this  advantage,  that  when 
they  are  ground  down,  the  instinct  of  the  bird  provides  more.* 

857.  In  what  respects  do  the  gallinaceous  birds  resemble 
ruminating  animals  ? 

By  a  peculiar  arrangement,  the  food  taken  up  by  the  bill  of 
•  Notes  to  raley's  "  Nat.  Theology,"  by  Sir  Charles  Bell. 


"272  THE     REASON   WHY 


"  The  cock,  that  is  the  trumpet  to  the  morn, 
Doth  with  his  lofty  and  shrill  sounding  throat 
Awake  the  god  of  day." — SHAKSPKKS. 


thes»  birds  undergoes  a  triturating  process  in  the  gizzard,  before 
passing  into  the  sto'fnach ;  thus  it  submits  to  a  double  digestion, 
somewhat  analogous  to  the  triple  digestive  action  of 
the  ruminants. 

858.  The  gallinidce  have,  generally  speaking,  three  stomachs,  and  their  intestines 
are  more  lengthened  than  those  of  most  birds,  and  furnished  with  two  caecal 
appendages,  about  six  inches  in  length.  These  three  stomachs  are  :  the  craw,  or 
pouch,  into  which  the  food  is  taken,  as  into  little  more  than  a  simple  store,  where 
it  is  sent  gradually  to  the  other  parts  of  the  digestive  apparatus.  In  this  viscus  the 
food  undergoes  very  little  change,  though  it  may  be  partially  softened.  The  craw 
>pens  laterally  from  the  gullet.  The  second  stomach  is  a  dilatation  of  the  gullet 
itself,  and  is  furnished  with  glands  which  secrete  a  peculiar  ftuid  ;  and  it  is  here, 
also,  thftt  the  drink  of  the  bird  mingles  with  its  food.  The  third  stomach  is  the 
gizzard,  the  texture  of  which  is  very  strong  and  muscular,  and  the  inner  coat  so 
hard  and  compact  as  to  have  the  appearance  of  fii-m  cartilage.  The  gizzard  can 
exert  a  very  powerful  action,  so  much  so  as  to  grind  down  glass  and  metals  in*  a 
very  short  tune,  without  appearing  to  sustain  injury. 

859.  IVTiy  do  the  gallinaceous    birds  lay  and  hatch  their   eggs 
in  nests  upon  the  ground  ? 

Because,  being  indifferent  flyers,  their  young  after  incubatiou 
are  thus  enabled  to  reach  their  proper  habitat  without  the  risk 
of  injury. 

860.  Why    are    the    legs   of   gallinaceous    birds    developed    at 
a  very  early  stage  of  their  existence? 

Because  they  are  ground  birds  ;  feed  upon  their  feet  ;  and  pass 
the  greater  portion  of  their  lives  in  walking  and  scraping. 

861.  The  newly-hatched  birds  require  these  organs  developed  very  early, 
being  lesis  provided  with  a  formal  nest  than  the  young  of  any  of  the  preceding 
orders. 

862.   Why  has  the  cock  a  streaming  and  elegant  tail  ? 

In  all  probability  this  appendage,  which  is  useless  to  him  in 
flying,  while  it  adds  to  the  dignity  and  importance  of  his  bearing 
in  the  eyes  of  his  mates,  assists  and  balances  his  body,  which  it 
largely  developed  on  the  breast. 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


273 


•  While  the  cock  with  lively  din, 
Scatters  the  rear  of  darkness  thin, 
And  to  the  stack  or  the  harn  door, 
Stoutly  struts  his  dames  before." — MILTON. 


863.   Why      has     the 
domesticated  ? 


fowl      become      thoroughly 


Because,  being  omnivorous 
it  delights  in  that  great 
variety  of  food  which 
proximity  to  man  affords  ; 
while  its  hardy  nature  enables 
it  to  support  great  variations 
of  season  and  temperature. 

This  rule  is  not  without 
limitation  :  the  barn-door  fowl 
does  not  thrive  or  breed  in 
very  cold  climates.  Every 
attempt  to  introduce  it  to 
fcuch  countries  as  Siberia  has 
hitherto  failed. 


864.   Why  have  common  poultry  limited  powers  of  flight  ? 

Because  they  have  little  use  for  wings  :  only  requiring  those 
organs  to  assist  their  legs  when  alarmed,  or  in  reaching  the 
perches  upon  which  th-ay  pass  the  hours  of  repose. 

865.  The  chief  usr  of  the  wings  of  the  gallinidse,  besides  enabling  those  which 
perch  during  the  n^ght  to  reach  their  perches,  appears  to  be  safety  agiinst 
quadrupedal  foes.  Their  fluttering  gets  them,  perhaps,  sooner  above  the  reach  of 
these  than  if  they  had  a  more  steady  and  forward  style  of  flight.  From  birds  of 
prey  they  may  be  said,  one  and  all,  to  be  incapable  of  escaping  on  the  wing  :  their 
safety  from  these  consists  in  crouching  among  the  clods  or  lurking  among  the 
herbage.  Their  wings  are  short,  broad,  and  concave  ;  and  also  looser  in  the 
plumage  of  their  under  sides  than  the  wings  of  almost  all  other  birds.  All  these 
qualities  enable  them  to  take  a  firm  hold  on  the  air,  which  assists  them  in  working 
upwards ;  though  it  renders  flight  more  laborious. 

866.   Why  do  fowls  prefer  to  roost  in  elevated  places? 


Because  they  have  an  instinctive   dread  of  vermin  which  inaj 
12* 


274  THE    REASON    WHY  : 


See  from  the  brake  the  whirring:  pheasant  springs, 
And  mounts  triumphant  on  exulting  wings." — POPE. 


molest  them  on  the  ground  during  the  hours  of  darkness.  Hence 
poultry,  if  left  to  themselves  and  not  housed,  will  perch  the  winter 
through  on  yew  trees  and  fir  trees  ;  and  turkeys  and  guinea  fowls, 
heavy  as  they  are,  get  up  into  apple  trees  around  their  owner's 
house  for  security,  let  the  weather  be  ever  so  boisterous. 

SG7.  Partridges  roost  on  the  ground,  not  having  the  faculty  of  perching ;  but  the 
same  fear  prevails  with  them ;  for,  through  apprehension  of  polecats  and 
stoats,  they  never  trust  themselves  to  coverts,  but  nestle  together  in  the  midst  of 
large  fields,  far  removed  from  hedges  and  coppices.  As  to  ducks  and  geese,  their 
awkward  web-feet  preclude  them  from  settling  on  trees;  they,  therefore,  in 
the  hours  of  darkness  and  danger,  betake  themselves  to  their  own  element,  the 
water,  where,  amidst  large  lakes  and  pools,  like  ships  riding  at  anchor,  they  float 
the  whole  night  long  in  peace  and  security. 

868.  Why    does   the  plumage  of   the  pheasant  taper  off    to   a 
point  ? 

The  haunts  of  these  birds  are  among  shrubs,  bushes,  and  tall 
herbage,  through  which  they  have  to  make  their  way  ivith  as  little 
rustling  as  possible:  this  their  pointed  tails  enable  them  to  do 
most  perfectly. 

869.  Why  do  pheasants  prefer  larch  trees  to  p^rch  upon  ? 

Because  the  branches  of  this  tree  grow  at  nearly  right  angles 
from  the  stem  ;  which  renders  the  sitting  position  of  the  birds 
peculiarly  easy. 

870.  Why  have  the  eggs  of  guinea  fowls  so  hard  a  shell  ? 

.» .  Because  these  birds  deposit 
their  eggs  on  the  ground, 
and  were  the  shells  not 
harder  than  those  of  ordi 
nary  eggs,  they  would  be 
broken  by  many  accidental 
causes.  The  eggs,  though 
laid  on  the  ground,  are 
usually  concealed. 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


275 


O'er  the  wild  waste  the  stupid  ostrich  strays 

In  devious  search  to  pick  her  scanty  meal, 

Whose  fierce  digestion  gnaws  the  temper'd  steel." — MICKLJC. 


871.    Why   do    fowls    and     other    birds   hustle    themselves    in 
the  dust? 

Because  by  this  action  they  rid  themselves  of  the  vermin  with 
which  they  are  liable  to  be  troubled. 

872.  On  the  same  principle,  swine  wallow  in  the  mire,  and  the  rhinoceros  and 
the  elephant  roll  their  bodies  in  the  mud  to  defend  them  from  the  breeze-fly. 

ORDER  VI.— CURSORES. 

873.  Why  is  the  order  cursores  so  termed? 

Because  the  birds  comprehended  therein  are  distinguished  by 
possessing  great  powers  of  locomotion  a-foot. 


874.  The  word  cursores  ia 
derived  from  the  Latin  verb 
curro,  "  I  run."  These  birds  are 
strictly  and  exclusively  terres 
trial  :  have  powerful  and  even 
massive  legs,  moved  by  volumi 
nous  muscles  ;  and  wings  which 
are  scarcely  more  than  rudi 
mentary,  barely  enabling  the 
bird  to  rise  above  the  surface 
of  the  earth.  The  ostrich,  dodo, 
and  cassowary  are  the  chief 
examples  of  this  order. 


875.   Why  is  the  ostrich  the  swiftest,  of  animals  ? 

Because  of  the  very  wide  and  scanty  distribution  of  its  food, 
and  the  consequent  large  area  over  which  it  must  travel  in  order 
to  obtain  it. 


876.    Why     does     the 
extraordinary   power? 


ostrich    possess     digestive     organs     of 


Because     the    scanty    supply    of    food     which     the     deserts 
afford,  renders    it    necessary   that   the    bird    should   bo  able   to 


276  THE   REASON   WHY: 


"At  both  these  times  they  were  motherless  and  helplesse, 
concernynge  theyre  owne  strengthes ;  but  were  yet  cared  for 
of  God."— BIBLE  NOTES,  1551. 


extract   the    whole  nourishment  which    that  supply    is    capable 
of    rendering. 

877.  Why  does  the  hen  ostricl  continue  to  lay  eggs,  while 
engaged  in  incubation  ? 

Because  she  thus  provides  for  her  young  brood  a  means  of 
subsistence  which  they  would  otharwise  need.  The,  eggs  laid 
during  incubation  are  destined  to  nourish  the  brood  ? 

8*S.  Although  as  large  as  pullets  when  first  hatched,  the  young  ostriches  are 
then  unable  to  digest  the  hard  and  acrid  food  on  which  the  old  ones  subsist.  The 
eggs  laid  for  this  purpose  are  not  deposited  in  the  nest,  but  placed  outside  it,  which 
alone  would  be  a  proof  of  the  use  they  are  intended  to  serve. 

879.  JFTiy  does  the  hen  ostrich  sometimes  abandon  her  nest  for 
a  long  period  ? 

Because  the  absence  of  moisture  in  the  desert  diminishes  the 
quantity  of  food  which  the  bird  can  meet  with :  and  this  compels 
her  to  take  long  journeys  in  order  to  preserve  her  life. 

880.  Under  such  circumstances,  she  also  actually  requires  more  food  ;  for  the 
amount  necessary  to  the  healthy  state  of  an  animal  increases  with  the  increase  of 
its  labour.  That  this  is  the  only  reason  why  the  ostrich  should  for  a  while  abandon 
her  eggs,  is  made  clear  by  the  fact  that  where  food  is  more  plentiful — i.e.,  in 
districts  better  watered — she  takes  a  narrower  range,  and  is  less  frequently  absent 
from  the  nest.  Und^r  the  tropics,  where  vegetation  abounds,  she  seldom,  if  ever, 
quits  it  till  the  eggs  are  hatched. 

881.  Why  has  the  hen  ostrich  been  cited  as  a  type  of  the 
neglectful  mother  ? 

Because  of  an  apparent  inclination  to  abandon  her  eggs  to 
chance,  by  leaving  them  uncovered  during  some  hours  of 
the  day. 

882.  This  carelessness  is,  however,  only  apparent.  During  the  heat  of  the 
African  day  the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun  are  sufficient  to  keep  the  eggs  at  a  proper 
temperature,  and  the  mother  takes  that  opportunity  to  procure  food  foi 
herself. 

During  such  an  exmrsion  she  still  hovers  about  her  nest,  and  if  surprised, 
makes  a  short  circuit,  and  returns  to  the  object  of  tier  core. 


"NATURAL   HISTORY.  277 


I'll   make  thee   eat   iron   like   an    ostrich,  and  swallow  my 
sword  like  a  preat  pin,  ere  thou  and  I  part." — SHAKSPEUE. 


The  expressions  in  the  Book  of  Job,  derogatory  to  tha  character  of  the  ostrich, 
ure  to  be  understood  as  spoken  by  an  individual,  not  as  coming  from  the  lips  of 
inspired  wisdom.  God  has  looked  upon  the  creation  of  his  hands  and  pronounced 
it  "  very  good."  Job  (in  chap,  xxxix.)  t-poke  according  to  his  limited  knowledge 
of  the  habits  of  birds,  and  might  pardonably  err.* 

In  the  dry  desert,  where  the  hen  ostrich  deposits  her  eggs,  scarcely  any  dew  is 
formed  during  the  night ;  and  she  can  without  injury  to  them  afford  to  be  absent 
from  the  nest  during  the  whole  twenty-four  hours,  if  such  an  absence  should  be 
necessary.  For  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  sand  during  the  night  would  be 
quite  sufficient  to  keep  up  a  stimulus  to  vitality  in  the  eggs  until  the  direct  sun  of 
another  day  came  upom  them. 

883.  Why  does  the  fool  of  the  ostrich  resemble  that  of 
a  camel  ? 

Because  it  inhabits  the  same,  regions,  and  is  subject  to  the  same 
set  of  circumstances  ;  with  this  difference,  that  as  its  pace  is 
more  swift,  the  foot  of  the  ostrich  is  therefore  proportionally 
hard  and  callous. 

884.  The  resemblance  between  the  ostrich  and  camel  has  always  been  a  subject  of 
remark.  Ey  the  ancient  authors  it  was  called  the  camel-bird.  Aristotle  asserts  it 
to  be  purtly  bird  and  partly  quadruped ;  and  Pliny  does  the  same.  Its  powers  of 
digestion  assimilate  it  to  the  ruminating  animals ;  it  does,  in  fact,  occupy  the 
place  among  birds  which  the  camel,  "the  ship  of  the  desert,"  does  among 
mammalia. 

885.   Why  has  the  ostrich  small  and  light  wings  ? 

It  is  a  rule  in  nature  that  whenever  one  species  of  action  is 
required  in  a  very  high  degree  the  organization  of  an  animal  is 
concentrated  upon  that.  Flight  would  have  been  of  comparatively 
little  use  to  a  "vegetable  feeding  bird,  where  its  height,  standing  on 
foot,  is  quite  sufficient  to  reach  the  top  of  the  tallest  shrub 
on  its  pastures. 

886.  Wings  sufficient  to  bear  up  so  weighty  a  bird  as  the  ostrich  in  swift  motion 
through  the  air  would  have  demanded  a  waste  of  muscular  exertion,  for  the 
supply  of  which  sufficient  food  could  not  have  been  found  in  the  region 
inhabited  by  it. 

*   See  "The    Biblica.    Reason    Why"    foi   many  interesting  explanations    of 

Scripture  texts. 


278 


THE    REASON  WHY: 


A  giantess  she  seems  ;   but,  look  behind, 
And  then  she  dwindles  to  the  pigmy  kind, 
Duck-legged,  short  waisted." — DKYUEN, 


ORDKR   VII.— GRALLATORES. 

887.    Wliy  is  the  order  grallatores  so  tcrined? 

From  the  circumstance  that  the  birds  comprehended  in  it  are 
waders,  distinguished  by  the  length  of  their  legs,  and  generally 
of  their  bilk.  The  word  is  formed  from  grallce,  "  stilts ;"  grallatores, 
therefore,  means  literally  "stilt  walkers" 


888.  These  birds  feed  upon 
worms  and  the  smaller  species  of 
fish  found  on  the  banks,  and  hold 
an  intermediate  place  between  land 
and  aquatic  birds ;  and  though 
not  provided  with  any  apparatus  to 
enable  them  to  swim,  the  provision 
thus  made,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
long-lagged  plover  seen  in  the 
engraving,  enables  them  to  wade 
in  the  water  in  search  of  their 
prey,  and  to  seize  it  without  any 
difficulty. 


889.    Why  have  long-legged  wading  birds  generally  short  tails  f 

Because  tails  of  any  considerable  length  would  be  inconvenien 
to  such  birds  :  coming  in  contact  with  water,  they^  would  be  liable 
to  become  wet,  heavy,  and  cumbersome.  For,  although  the 
plumage  of  water-birds  is  provided  with  an  oil  which  repels 
water,  it  operates  chiefly  upon  the  closer  plumage,  to  prevent 
the  water  from  penetrating  to  the  flesh  of  the  body. 

890.  Another  reason  why  wading  birds  have  short  tails  is  to  be  found  in  the 
fact  that  many  of  them  are  of  hiding  habits,  and  fond  of  concealing  themselves  in 
tall  vegetation.  Birds  which  have  these  habits  are  always  small-tailed,  or  thai 
member  is  so  disposed,  as  in  the  pheasant,  that  it  trails  the  earth,  and  in  no  way 
interferes  with  their  concealment. 

891.   Why  have  wading  birds  wide-spreading  feet  ? 

Because,  in  searching  after  their  food,  they  have  frequently  tc 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  279 


There's  not  a  better  steerrr  in  the  realm, 

I  hope,  my  lord,  you'll  call  him  to  the  helm." — SWIFT. 


stand  by  the  slippery  edges  of  the  water,  and  to  steady  themselves 
on  doping  batiks  of  wet  grass,  neither  of  which  could  they  effect 
securely  were  their  feet  formed  with  a  narrower  base. 

892.  Why    do    short-tailed   birds    generally     throw     their   has 
behind  them  when  flying  ? 

Because,  being  destitute  of 
the  steerage  power  usually 
afforded  by  the  tail,  they  find 
a  substitute  in  their  long  legs, 
which  they  throw  back  to 
occupy  its  place  :  thus  they  get 
rid  of  the  inconvenience  of 
long  legs  while  flying,  and  are 
compensated  for  the  absence  of  the  tail. 

893.  Wliy  have,  fish-eating  birds  in  general  no  crop  ? 

Because  all  they  swallow,  however  large  it  may  be,  enters  at 
once  into  the  stomach,  and  undergoes  immediate  digestion. 

894.  Why  has  the  snipe  a  long  tapering  bill? 

Because  it  derives  its  food  by  penetrating  its  bill  into  the  moist 
earth.  This  is  exactly  the  instrument  which  the  animal  wanted. 
It  did  not  require  strength  in  its  bill,  which  was  inconsistent  with 
the  slender  form  of  the  animal's  neck,  as  well  as  unnecessary  for 
the  kind  of  aliment  upon  which  it  subsists  ;  but  it  wanted  length 
to  reach  its  object. 

895.  Why   are   the   eyes    of    snipes  placed  more  backward   in 
the  head,  than  in  most  other  birds  ? 

Because  these  organs  are  not  much  wanted  in  the  immediate 
capture  of  their  prey,  and  are  thus  placed  so  as  to  best  guard 
against  enemies.  And  besides,  the  eyes  being  thus  situated, 
enables  the  bill  to  bore  its  whole  length  in  the  mud,  when 
searching  for  worms. 


•280  THE    REASON    WHY  : 


But  if  I  know  when  you  come  next  a  burding, 
I'll  have  a  stronger  noose  to  hold  the  woodcock." 

BEAUMONT  AND  FLKTCHER. 


806.  Why  are  birds  of  the  snipe  family  without  the  ioti<j 
hind  toe  of  other  birds? 

Because  in  wading  in  the  mud,  where  the  feet  must  necessarily 
sink  deeply,  a  long  hind  toe  would  be  an  incumbrance,  and  tend  to 
throw  the  bird  on  to  its  head  in  the  water. 

897.  Why  do  snipes  and  woodcoclcs  gradually  disappear  from 
cultivated  districts  ? 

Beca'use  the  three  essentials  to  the  tribe  are  solitude,  shelter, 
and  humidity — consequently,  population,  clearance,  and  drainage 
drive  them  into  more  sequestered  places. 

898.  The  grand  resort  of  woodcocks  in    summer  is   understood  to  be  marshy 
woods  to  the  north  of  the  Baltic ;  and  the  farther  north,  so  long  as  the  place  is 
wooded,  the  better,  as  the  insect  food  for  the  birds  is  not  only  more  plentiful,  but 
the  sludge  of  the  marshes  is  more  exclusively  the  nest  of  larvjB. 

899.  Why  docs  the  flamingo,  when  feeding,  hold  its  head  and 
beak  upside-down  in  the  water  ? 

The  feet  of  the  bird  while  feeding  are  moved  in  a  trampling 
manner,  in  order  to  stir  the  sand  or  mud  beneath  the  water  ; 
the  food  thus  disturbed,  whether  insects,  fish,  or  stones,  are  conti 
nually  falling  into  their  former  position.  The  flamingo,  by 
placing  its  head  in  that  peculiar  way,  catches  in  its  mouth,  tests 
upon  its  tongue,  and  appropriates  to  its  use  whatever  is 
suitable  for  food. 

900.  The  structure  of  the  flamingo's  tongue  is  admirably  adapted  to  its  purpose. 
The  spines  with  which  the  upper  surface  is  armed  are  arranged  in  an  irregular  and 
alternate  series,  and  act  with  the  notches  on  the  edge  of  the  upper  mandible,  on 
which  they  press  when  the  bird  feeds  with  the  head  reversed.  In  this  reversed 
position,  the  weight  and  size  of  the  tongue  supply  a  very  efficient  instrument  for 
entrapping  the  food.  The  bird  muddles  and  clutters  the  bill,  and  dabbles  about ; 
and  the  tongue  receives,  and  holds  as  a  strainer,  whatever  the  water  offers  foi 
food.* 

*  Maunder's    "Treasury." 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


281 


What  is  this  misrhtv  breath,  ye  sages,  say 
That,  in  a  powerful  language,  felt,  not  heard, 
Instructs  the  fowl&  of  heaven  ?" — THOMSON. 


901.  Why  does  the  flamingo  make  its  nest  upon  mound-Ufa 

i.tifi.ti.nri.s  ? 


elevations 


Because  the  great  length 
of  the  legs  of  the  flamingo 
preclude  the  possibility  of 
its  conducting  incubation 
in  the  ordinary  manner 
Inhabiting  inarshy  places, 
the  nests  are  thus  raised 
above  the  wet  soil,  to  a  dry 
and  warm  situation,  in 
which  the  process  of  hatch 
ing  can  more  effectually  he 
accomplished. 


902.  These  elevated  nests  are  constructed  by  the  bird  out  of  loose  earth  or  mud, 
formed  into  the  shape  of  a  hillock,  with  a  hollow  cavity  at  the  top  ;  the  eggs  are 
two  or  three  in  number,  white,  and  as  large  as  those  of  a  goose,  but  of  a  longer 
figure.  The  female  sits  upon  her  nest  during  incubation,  the  attitude  being  that 
of  a  person  sitting  upon  a  high  stool — the  legs  resting  on  marshy  giound,  and 
sometimes  even  in  the  water.  Sometimes,  if  the  female  finds  a  low  projecting 
rock,  she  makes  her  nest  on  the  edge  thereof,  and  raises  no  hillock. 

903.   Why  has  the  avocet  a  bill  shaped  like  a  scoop  ? 

Avocets  are  fen  birds ;  but,  in  feeding,  they  frequent  only 
those  parts  of  the  fens  which  are  alternately  flooded  and  left  dry 
by  tidal  waters.  Their  bills  are  not  adapted  for  taking  any  kind 
of  food  upon  land ;  neither  are  they  fitted  for  fishing  in  the  waters. 
Their  food  is  contained  in  mud,  ooze,  or  light  gravel ;  and  consists 
of  worms,  larvae,  and  small  molluHCOus  and  crustaceous  animals, 
which  are  there  found  in  great  plenty.  The  greater  number  of 
these  are  embedded  to  a  certain  depth,  and  are  not  seen  by  birds 
that  feed  by  sight. 


282 


TiiE    REASON   WIIT  : 


"  The  machine,  which  we  arc  inspecting,  demonstrates  by  its 
construction,  contrivance,  and  design.  Contrivance  must  have 
had  a  contriver,  design  a  designer ;  whether  the  machine  imme 
diately  proceeded  from  another  machine  or  not." — PALEY. 


904.  In  searching   for  its   food  among  various  accumulated  matters,  the  avocet 

moves  along  with  slow  hut  rather 
lengthy  steps,  and  scoops  ooze  or 
mud  in  curves,  right  and  left,  as  it 
proceeds.  In  performing  this  opera 
tion,  it  does  not  use  the  bill  only, 
but  the  whole  body.  It  alights  in 
the  middle  with  its  head  in  the 
stream,  and  the  one  foot  a  little  in 
advance  of  the  other.  It  then 
stretches  and  depresses  the  neck, 
and  gives  it  a  twist,  so  that  the 
extremity  of  the  bill,  \\hich  is  on  a 
level  with  the  ooze,  is  turned  to 
the  other  side.  The  foot  farthest  in 
advance  is  the  pivot  on  which  it  is 
to  turn,  in  making  the  stroke  which 
sweeps  one  curve.  Then  it  slowly 
advances  the  rearmost  foot,  which  elevates  the  hinder  part  of  the  body,  depresses 
the  fore  part,  and  throws  the  support  on  the  advanced  foot,  while,  supported  by 
that,  and  moved  by  the  lever  power  of  the  other  as  it  is  brought  forward,  the  axis 
the  body  is  caused  to  cross  the  stream  obliquely  in  an  opposite  direction  :  by  this 
motion  the  bill  makes  another  scoop.  The  head  and  bill  are  then  elevated  for  the 
purpose  of  conveying  to  the  gullet  the  food  which  the  bill  has  thus  collected. 

905.  Why  has  the  spoon-bill  long,  flattened  mandibles  ? 


Because  these  birds  inhabit 
the  borders  of  rivers  and 
sea-coasts,  where  they  feed 
upon  small  fish,  shrimps, 
frogs,  quails,  and  aquatic 
insects;  and  the  form  of  the 
bill  is  admirably  adapted 
for  seizing  such  descriptions 
of  prey.  Their  beaks  consist 
of  long,  flat,  and  broad  mandi 
bles,  widening  and  flattening 
at  the  end,  so  as  to  tomi  a 
roundish  spatula. 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  283 


The  stork  assembly  meets ;  for  many  a  day, 
Consulting1  deep,  and  various,  ere  they  take 
Their  arduous  voyage  through  the  liquid  sky."— THOMSON. 


90G.  Paley  makes  these  general  and  interesting  remarks  upon  the  forms  of  the 
bills  of  birds  : — In  birds,  the  mouth  assumes  a  new  character  ;  new  both  in  sub 
stance  and  in  form,  but  in  both  wonderfully  adapted  to  the  wants  and  uses  of  a 
distinct  mode  of  existence.  We  have  no  longer  the  fleshy  lips,  the  teeth  of 
enamelled  bone  ;  but  we  have,  in  the  place  of  these  two  parts,  and  to  perform 
the  office  of  both,  a  hard  substance,  of  the  same  nature  with  that  which  composes 
the  nails,  claws,  and  hoofs  of  quadrupeds,  cut  into  proper  shapes,  and  mechanically 
suited  to  the  actions  which  are  wanted. 

The  sharp  and  tempered  point  of  the  sparrow's  bill  picks  almost  every  kind  of 
seed  from  its  concealment  in  the  plant;  and  not  only  so,  but  hulls  the  grain, 
breaks  and  shatters  the  coats  of  the  seed,  in  order  to  get  at  the  kernel.  In  the 
same  way  it  breaks  the  shells  of  snails,  to  get  at  the  animal  food  within. 

The  hooked  beak  of  the  hawk  tribe  separates  the  flesh  from  the  bones  of  the 
animals  which  it  feeds  upon,  almost  with  the  cleanliness  and  precision  of  a 
dissecting  knife. 

The  butcher-bird  transfixes  its  prey  upon  the  spike  of  a  thorn,  whilst  it  picks 
the  bones.  In  some  birds  of  this  class  we  have  the  cross  bill — i.e.,  both  the  upper 
and  lower  bill  hooked,  and  their  tips  crossing ;  and  these  bills  are  used  for  splitting 
the  cones  of  firs,  and  other  seed-vessels,  harder  than  the  ordinary  grains  and  seeds 
which  are  dissected  by  the  beak  of  the  sparrow. 

The  spoon  bill  enables  the  goose  to  graze,  to  collect  its  food  from  the  bottom  of 
pools,  or  to  seek  it  amidst  the  soft  substances  with  which  it  is  mixed. 

The  long  tapering  bill  of  the  snipe  and  woodcock  penetrates  deeply  into  the  bed 
of  the  moist  earth.  But  the  species  of  bill  which  belong  to  the  birds  that  live  by 
suction  deserves  to  be  described  in  relation  to  that  office.  They  are  what  naturalists 
call  serrated,  or  dcntated  bills  ;  the  inside  of  them  towards  the  edge  being  thickly 
set  with  parallel  or  concentric  rows  of  short,  strong,  sharp-pointed  prickles. 
These  form  a  filter,  flic  duck,  by  means  of  them,  strains  the  mud  ;  examining  with 
great  accuracy  the  puddle,  the  brake — every  mixture  which  is  likely  to  contain 
her  food. 

907.  Wliy  is  the  stork  an  enemy  to  the  cat  species  ? 

Because  probably  their  habits  and  tastes  are  too  similar  for 
them  to  reside  peaceably  together. 

The  stork  is  fond  of  small  birds  ;  so  is  the  cat,  who  loves 
young  storks.  The  parent  stork  is  partial  to  kittens,  as  an  article 
of  food,  and  finds  them  an  easy  and  wholesome  prey.  Hence  the 
enmity  of  the  two  species. 

908.  Why    are    birds    oj    the   stork   tribe  generally    voracious 
eaters  ? 

Because  they  are  subject  to  great   vicissitude*  of  season ;   at 


284 


THE    REASON   WHY. 


Who  bade  the  stork,  Columbus-like,  explore 

Heavens  not  his  own,  and  worlds  unknown  before  ? 

Who  c.ills  the  council,  states  the  certain  day, 

Who  forms  the  phalanx,  and  who  points  the  way." — POPE. 


times  rejoicing  iu  plenty  —  at  others  suffering  from  scarcity. 
Their  hearty  feeding  during  favourable  seasons  enables  them  to 
bear  a  period  of  abstinence  without  material  injury. 

909.  Wliy  has  the  stork  been  from  the  most  ancient  periods  an 
object  of  favour  and  veneration? 

Because  its  usefulness  is  great  ;  especially  in  hot  countries,  where 
it  acts  as  a  vigilant  scavenger,  removing  the  causes  of  disease 
and  death,  and  eating  the  most  annoying  species  of  reptiles. 

910.  Its  beneficial  labours  in  Egypt  doubtless  led  to  the  deification  of  the  ibis, 
a  bird  of  similar  character  and  form.  In  Holland,  and  the  northern  parts  of 
Germany,  the  stork  is  still  protected  as  a  precursor  of  "good  luck." 


911.  Why  has  the 
jacana  toes  of  extraor 
dinary  length  ? 

Because  it  inhabits  the 
borders  of  waters  which 
are  frequently  over-grown 
with  the  broad  leaves 
of  aquatic  plants.  Its 
spreading  toes,  coupled 
with  the  lightness  of  its 
body,  enable  the  bird  to 
walk  upon  the  leaves, 
whilst  it  gathers  the  in 
sects,  worms,  and  small 
fishes  that  surround 
them. 


them. 

912.  Why   has   the  jacana  sharp   hard  spurs   on    the   corner 
each    wing  ? 


i    each    wing  ? 
Because  snakes  of  various  sizes,  all  rapacious,  and  to  be  dreaded. 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


285 


The  sitting  bird  looks  up  with  jetty  eye, 
And  waves  her  head  in  terror  to  and  fro, 
Speckled  and  vein'd  with  various  shades  of  brown." — CLAHE. 


abound  in  the  haunts  of  the  bird.  The  spurs  on  the  wings  are 
effective  weapons  against  these  reptiles,  the  horny  appendages 
of  the  beak  assisting  also  in  their  destruction. 

913.  Why  are  herons  furnished   with   wings  which  appear   to 
be  too  cumbersome  for  their  slight  bodies  ? 

Because  those  vast  hollow  wings  are  necessary  in  carrying 
burdens,  such  as  large  fishes  and  the  like,  with  which  they  would 
be  dragged  to  the  earth  were  it  not  for  the  resisting  force  thus 
provided. 

914.  Why  is  so  little  known  of  the  habits  of  the  bittern  ? 

Because  it  is  a  bird  that  loves  seclusion,  and  fixes  its  haunts  in 
wild  and  desolate  places.  No  temptation  will  bring  it  upon 
cultivated  or  improved  lands  as  a  permanent  resident  ;  and  when 
the  scarcity  of  winter  forces  it  from  the  upland,  it  comes  down 
reluctantly  and  stealthily,  and  seeks  those  streams  and  banks 
which  are  the  rudest  and  least  frequented. 

915.  Even  when  not  upon  the  nest,  the  bittern  squats  among  the  rushes,  or  other 

tall  stems,  during  the  greater 

"X  \  \  \V  \  V  s/  Part  of  tne  day.    The  mode  of 

squatting  is  rather  peculiar, 
and  may  be  understood  from 
the  accompanying  figure.  The 
neck,  when  the  head  is  in  this 
posture,  is  raised,  and  the 
point  of  the  bill  directed 
upwards,  the  body  and  legs 
being  at  the  same  time  in 
such  a  position  that  a  violent 
thrust  may  be  given  by  the 
bill,  if  necessary  ;  and,  as  the 
neck  is  powerful,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  readily  moveable 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  secure 
the  whole  body  from  attack, 
there  are  few  birds  of  prey 
that  would  venture  to  descend 
upon  the  bittern  in  this  posi 
tion,  even  if  they  should 
see  it. 


286 


THE   REASON    WHY. 


1  Shall  I,  like  Curtius,  desperate  in  my  zeal, 
O'er  head  and  ears  plunge  for  the  common  weal 
Or  rob  Home's  ancient  ycese  of  all  their  glories, 
And  cackling  save  the  monarchy  of  tories?" — POPE. 


ORDER  YIIL— NATATORES. 

916.   Why  is  the  eighth  order  of  birds  called  natatores? 

From  nato,  to  swim,  this  being  an  equivalent  term  for  swimmers, 
or  water-fowl. 

917.  The  head  of  this  order  is  the  goose,  and  by  Linneus  it  was  termed  arseres, 
or  the  goose  family.  These  birds  display  decidedly  aquatic  habits,  swim  with 
facility,  and  are  able  to  pass  the  greater  part  of  their  lives  upon  the  water. 

918.  Why  are  the  natatores  sometimes  called  by  the  name  of 
"palmipedes"  ? 


From  palma,  the  flat  front 
of  the  hand,  and  pes,  a 
foot — implying  that  the  birds 
are  palm,  or  web-footed,  the 
toes  of  the  feet  being  con 
nected  by  a  web  or  mem 
brane. 


919.    Why  has  the  goose  bun  considered  a  stupid  bird? 


It  has  occasionally  a  stupid 
look  ;  its  walk,  or  rather  waddle 
give  it  also  an  absurd  and  im 
becile  appearance  ;  but  the  ready 
way  in  which  its  apprehensions 
are  excited  seems  to  have  been 
the  first  cause  for  this  imputed 
character. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  287 


So  have  I  seen,  within  a  pen, 
Young1  rjiickfinys  fostered  bjr  a  hen  ; 
But,  when  let  out,  they  run  and  muddle, 
As  instinct  leads  them,  in  a  puddle." — SWIFT. 

920.  The  number  of  geese  sent  from  the  northern  and  eastern  counties  to  London  for 
sale  annually  is  immense.  They  are  now  conveyed  by  rail,  but  former  *y  tsed  to  be 
driven  by  gooseherds  (gozzards).  These  were  furnished  with  long  sticks,  having  a 
piece  of  red  rag  fastened  at  one  end  as  a  lash,  and  a  hook  at  the  other.  Of  this  reJ 
rag  the  geese  always  had  an  unaccountable  dread.  The  goose  grazes,  and,  like  the 
ox,  is  alarmed  at  a  red  colour,  probably  from  the  same  cause,  (see  540). 

921.  Why  was  the  goose  an  object  of  respect  to  the 
ancient  Roman  people  ? 

On  account  of  a  circumstance  by  which  a  flock  of  geese  saved 
the  capitol  of  Rome  from  surprise  and  capture. 

The  goose,  although  regarded  as  an  emblem  of  stupidity, 
is  a  very  watchful  bird,  and  when  anything  strange  appears,  sets 
up  a  loud  and  unmistakeable  gabbling. 

922.  The  Gauls,  under  Brennus  (year  of  Rome,  364),  were  in  possession  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  city.  The  garrison,  however,  still  held  the  capitol,  and  that 
with  such  obstinacy  that  the  Gaulish  general  had  no  hope  but  to  starve  it  out.  One 
day,  Brennus  was  informed  of  a  secret  path  by  means  of  which  he  would  be  able 
to  enter,  and  surprise  the  capitol.  Accordingly,  a  chosen  body  of  his  men  weje 
ordered  by  night  upon  this  dangerous  service,  which  they,  with  great  labour  and 
difficulty,  almost  effected  ;  when  suddenly  the  garrison  was  awakened  to  vigilance 
by  the  voices  of  some  sacred  geese  kept  in  the  Temple  of  Juno.  They  instantly 
flew  to  arms,  and  the  capitol  was  saved. 

923.  Why  are  aquatic  birds  enabled  to  plunge  into  water  and 
to  emerge  from  it  perfectly  dry  ? 

Because  their  feathers  are  coated  with  an  oily  matter,  which 
renders  them  not  only  impermeable  to  water,  but  repellanl  of  it ; 
so  that  no  perceptible  effect  is  produced  by  that  element. 

924.  Why  are   ducks  and  other   water-birds   more  assiduous  in 
Brimming   their  feathers  than  land-birds  ? 

Because  their  plumelets  being  of  very  close  texture,  any  slight 
derangement  in  them  is  readily  felt  from  the  air  getting  access  to 
the  skin  through  the  breach  thence  occasioned. 

925.  Why  do  geese  "  waddle"  in  their  walk  ? 

Because  their  legs  are  placed  wide  apart,  so  that  they  may  act 


288  THE   REASON    WHY  : 


"  The  swan  with  arched  neck 

Between  her  white  wings  mantling  proudly,  rowes 
Her  state  with  oarie  feet." — MILTON. 


free  of  the  sides  in  swimming ;  and  the  weight  of  the  body  in 
consequence  swings  from  side  to  side  as  the  bird  walks,  producing 
a  zigzag  motion 

926.  Why  do  ducks  and  geese  make  a  gleeful  noise  upon  the 
approach  of  rain  ? 

Because  the  bills  of  these  birds  are  very  sensitive;  when  im 
mersed  in  water,  or  in  mud  rendered  soft  by  the  admixture  of 
water,  the  functions  of  the  bill  are  favoured  ;  but  when  the  atmo 
sphere  is  dry,  the  sensitive  membrane  stiffens,  and  becomes  hard  ; 
and  thus  renders  the  circulation  on  the  delicate  tissues  interrupted 
j»,nd  laborious. 

927.  Why  is  the  bill  of  the  duck  more  sensitive  than  the  same 
organ  usually  in  other  birds? 

Because  the  whole  of  the  duck  tribe  find  their  food  more  by  the 
sense  of  touch  than  by  that  of  sight,  and  the  bill  is  favourably 
organized  accordingly.  It  is  covered  by  a  sentient  membrane,  and 
the  edges  which  come  in  contact  are  covered  with  papillae,  and 
abundantly  furnished  with  nerves,  so  that,  when  a  duck  dabbles  in 
the  water,  the  feeling  of  the  bill  enables  it  to  distinguish 
eatable  substances  from  the  sludge  and  pebbles  with  which  they 
are  mixed. 

928.  Why    do    swans    frequent    shallow     waters    and     the 
fides  only   of  deep  lakes? 

The  chief  reason  of  this  is,  that  they  are  vegetable  feeders  ;  and 
although  their  long  necks  enable  them  to  reach  the  bottom  at 
considerable  depths,  they  never  dive,  and  rarely  feed  upon  the 
land,  or  in  any  other  mode  than  by  floating  upon  the  water. 

929.  Why    is    a    blow  from    the    swan's    wing   powerfully 
effective  ? 

The  angle  or  elbow  of  the  wing  is  the  part  with  which  it  strikes ; 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


**  The  swan  uplifts  his  chest,  and  backward  flines 
His  neck,  a  varying  arch,  between  his  towering  wings. — "WonnswoRTH. 


and  the  motion  is  so  rapid  that  the  stroke  is  much  more  weighty 
than  would  at  first  be  supposed  from  the  mere  volume  of  the 
striking  instrument. 

930.  When  we  consider  that  the  effect  of  a  stroke  Is  made  up  of  two  elements,  the 
quantity  of  matter  and  the  velocity,  and  that  the  effect  increases  only  as  the  quantity 
of  matter,  while  it  does  so  as  to  the  square  of  the  velocity,  \vecan  easily  understand 
how  soon  rapidity  of  motion  will  make  up  for  any  inferior  weight  in  the  moving 
instrument.  One-fourt!i  the  quantity  of  matter  moving  with  four  times  the  velocity, 
has  an  effect  in  the  proportion  of  sixteen  to  four,  that  is,  it  has  an  effect  four  times 
ay  great. 

931.    Why    do    sterns   in   their   migrations  fly   very  high  ? 

They  take  a  very  high  flight  in  order  to  avoid  the  attach  of 
the  eagles  and  falcons,  against  whom  their  powers  of  resistance 
would  ill  defend  them  if  the  latter  got  "the  sky"  of  them. 

932.  To  everything  above  it  in  the  air,  the  falcon  is  comparatively  harmless ;  by 
taking  "the  sky"  of  tii?  falcon,  the  swan  is  enabled  to  perform  its  migratory 
trip  in  safety. 

933.  Why    are    swans    in    making    their    migratory    flights 
governed  by  the  state  of  the  wind  ? 

Because,  on  account  of  their  bulk  and  the  weight  of  their  closely 
set  feathers,  they  cannot  make  way  against  the  wind.  Hence 
they  almost  invariably  go  with  the  wind;  and  wait,  or  even 
halt  on  their  journey,  if  the  wind  is  adverse. 

934.  Why     has    the    plumage    and     character    of  the    swan 
remained  for  many  centuries   unclianged  ? 

Because  of  its  wild  nature;  it  is  less  subject  to  domesti 
cation  than  almost  any  kind  of  bird,  pining  in  captivity,  and 
never  breeding,  unless  allowed  to  do  so  within  its  own  haunts. 

935.  Why   should    the    alleged    "dying    song"    of    the  sioan 
be  rejected  as  fabulous? 

That  the  swan,  usually  mute,  should  utter  a  pleasing  musical 
ttote  at  its  death  is  contrary  to  all  experience  and  philosophy. 

13 


290  THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  A  cormorant  flew  several  times  round  the  ship.  As  these 
birds  are  seldom,  if  ever,  known  to  fly  far  out  of  si^ht  of  land, 
I  judged  that  some  was  not  far  distant." — CAFT.  COOK. 


That  it  should  be  true,  indeed,  would  be  in  contradiction  to  the 
whole  analogy  of  nature,  the  voices  of  pain  in  animals,  and 
especially  at  the  hour  of  death,  being  without  a  single  exception 
unpleasant  to  the  ear. 

936.  What  peculiarity  is  there  in  the  structure  of  the  foot 
of  the  cormorant  ? 

The  tarsi  are  stronge  rand  more  tendinous  than  in  swimming 
birds  ;  they  are  straighter  set ;  the  toes  collapse  more,  and  thus 
the  birds  can  walk  better,  and  also  stand  firm  on  the  slippery 

points  of  rocks.  The  pecu 
liarity  in  form  is  the  web 
continued  to  the  hind  toe, 
and  the  general  position  of 
the  web  being  inwards  rather 
than  forwards,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  annexed  figure  of 
the  right  foot  of  the  cormo 
rant,  with  the  side  outwards, 
which  is  turned  towards  the 
centre  of  the  bird. 


937.  If  the  prey  is  on  the  surface,  and  small,  these  birds  can  capture  it  by  a  snap 
of  the  bill,  and  ascend  again  without  losing  the  wing,  in  the  same  manner  that  the 
skimming  birds  take  the  greater  part  of  their  food ;  but  if  the  prey  is  under  the 
eurface,  and  large,  the  wing  must  not  only  suspend  its  action,  but  be  partially 
closed,  and  the  bird  must  thus  enter  the  water,  using  it  wings  as  agents  in  again 
ascending. 

938.  Why  are  stormy  petrels  enabled  to  run  upon  the  surface 
of  the  water  ? 

Because  the  lightness  of  their  bodies,  and  the  action  of  the 
wind  upon  their  wings,  enable  them  with  ease  to  assume  this 
position  during  a  storm.  In  calm  weather  they  perform  the  same 
manoeuvre,  by  keeping  their  wings  just  so  much  in  action  as  to 
prevent  their  feet  from  sinking  below  the  surface. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


291 


"  Such  murmur  fill'd 

Th'  assembly,  as  when  hollow  rock?  retain 

The  sound  of  blustering  winds,  which  all  night  long 

Had  rous'd  the  sea." — MILTON. 


939.  There  are  few    persons  who    have  crossed  the    Atlantic    that   have   not 
observed  these  wanderers  of  the  deep  skimming  along  the  surface  of  the  wild  and 

wasteful    ocean  ;    flitting    past     the 

-rx^"""~"  vessel  like  swallows,  or  following  in 

J"  her     wake,    gleaning    their    scanty 

pittance  of  food  from  the  rough  and 
whirling  surges.  Habited  in  mourn 
ing,  and  making  their  appearance 
generally  in  greater  numbers  previous 
to,  or  during  a  storm,  they  have 
long  been  regarded  by  the  ignorant 
and  superstitious,  not  only  as  the 
foreboding  messengers  of  tempests 
and  dangers  to  the  hapless  mariner,  but  as  wicked  agents,  connected  somehow  or 
other  in  creating  them.  "  Nobody,"  they  say,  "  can  tell  anything  of  where  they 
come  from,  or  how  they  breed,  though  (as  sailors  sometimes  say)  it  is  supposed  that 
they  hatch  their  eggs  under  their  wings  as  they  sit  on  the  water."  This  mysterious 
uncertainty  of  their  origin,  and  the  circumstances  above  recited,  have  doubtless 
given  rise  to  the  opinion  so  prevalent  among  seafaring  men,  that  they  are  in 
some  way  or  other  connected  with  supernatural  powers  in  the  air.  In  every 
country  where  they  are  known,  their  names  have  borne  some  affinity  to  this  belief. 
They  have  been  called  witches,  stormy  petrels,  the  devil's  birds,  and  Mother  Gary's 
chickens,  probably  from  some  celebrated  hag  of  that  name  ;  and  their  unexpected 
and  numerous  appearance  has  frequently  thrown  a  momentary  damp  on  the 
mind  of  the  hardiest  seaman. 


940.  Why  are  sea-birds  enabled  to  breast  the  waves  in 
tempestuous  weather  ? 

Because  the  waves,  instead  of  rolling  with  the  velocity  of  the 
wind  (as  is  commonly  imagined),  roll  very  little.  When  we  look 
at  them  from  the  shore  and  with  a  side  wind,  they  seem  to  roll 
on,  and  they  always  appear  to  move  slower  in  a  fresh  breeze. 
They  heave  and  sink,  the  times  being  as  the  square  roots  of  their 
lengths,  so  that,  if  a  wave  four  feet  broad  changes  from  ridge 
to  trough  in  four  seconds,  one  of  sixteen  feet  will  change  in  eight 
seconds.  Now,  as  the  apparent  forward  motion  is  half  the  width, 
the  four-feet  wave  will  appear  to  move  at  the  rate  of  rather 
less  than  a  mile  and  a  half  in  the  hour,  the  sixteen-feet 
wave  at  rather  less  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  the  hour,  which  ia 
very  slow  motion. 


292 


THE    REASON    WHY  : 


By  them  there  sat  the  loving  pelican, 

Whose  young  ones,  poisoned  by  the  serpent's  sting, 

With  her  own  blood  to  life  again  cloth  bring." — DRAYTON. 


941.  Thus  in  the  case  of  single  waves,  the  middle  of  the  slope  is  a  point  of  rest, 

on  which  the  sea-bird  can 
sit  with  little  more  difficulty 
than  on  the  calm  surface. 
This  will,  perhaps,  be  made 
plainer  by  the  accompanying 
diagram,  in  which  two  birds 
are  represented  as  being  at 
rest  on  the  wave  :  a  b  is  the 
mean  level  or  calm  line  of 
the  sea,  cutting  both  the 

black  and  dotted  curve  on  the  points  o  o.  The  figure  1  represents  the  ridge,  and  3 
the  hollow,  at  one  end  of  the  vibration  ;  4  the  ridge,  and  2  the  hollow,  as  shown 
by  the  dotted  line  at  the  other.  The  bird  at  b  on  the  turning-point  is  not  moved 
either  up  or  down  ;  and  as  that  point  is  alternately  on  the  windward  and  the 
leeward  of  the  wave,  the  wave  keeps  the  bird  from  drifting  in  the  first  case,  and 
shelters  it  in  the  second. 

942.   Why    has    the,    pelican  a   large    pouch    attached    to    its 
lower  mandible  ? 

The  pouch  answers  nearly 
the  same-  purposes  that  the 
crop  does  in  birds  which 
possess  such  an  organ.  The 
food  is  taken  into  it  in  much 
^  larger  quantities  than  the 
^^^  digestive  stomach  can  receive 
at  once  ;  and  is  gradually 
received  into  the  stomach 
as  the  process  of  digestion 
goes  on. 

But     the     pouch     serves 
another    and  a    remarkable 
purpose.          The       pelican, 
though  seeking  its   food  in 
the   sea,   builds   its  nest  at 
gg-  a    distance    from  it,    gene 
rally    in  ruins    which   have 
become  dry  and  waste  ;  and    this  is  the   reason  why  the    name 


NATURAL    iIlSTORY.  293 


"  Every  copse 

Deep  tangled,  tree  irregular,  and  bush 
Bending  with  dewy  moisture,  o'er  the  heads 
Of  the  coy  quiristers  that  lodge  within, 
Are  prodigal  of  harmony." — THOMSON. 

of  the  pelican  is  so  frequently  associated  in  writings  with  thafc 
of  the  wilderness. 

The  pouch,  therefore,  serves  as  a  receptacle,  in  which  the  pelican 
conveys  food  to  its  young,  in  nests  which  lie  remote  from  the 
shore.  The  food  designed  for  the  young  becomes  macerated  or 
softened  by  the  action  of  the  pouch  ;  and  when  the  nest  is  situated 
in  a  very  arid  district,  the  old  bird  uses  the  pouch  to  carry  water 
to  its  young. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

943.  Why  when   birds    migrate,    do    the    old    ones    generally 
precede    the  young   ones  ? 

Because  the  moulting  of  young  birds  takes  place  at  a  later 
period  than  that  of  old  ones  ;  so  that  they  are  not  sufficiently 
recovered  from  the  weakness  which  attends  this  process,  to 
endure  the  fatigues  of  a  journey  at  a  time  when  the  old  birds 
are  ready  to  undertake  it. 

944.  By    what     circumstances    is    the     migration    of     birds 
governed  ? 

The  time  at  which  birds  of  passage  arrive  in  Britain,  or  quit 
it,  varies  according  to  the  species.  Natives  of  the  northern 
countries  of  Europe  come  to  us  at  the  end  of  autumn  or  the 
beginning  of  winter  ;  and  in  the  first  fine  weather  avoid  our  heat, 
as  they  had  done  excess  of  cold  ;  they  return  to  lay  their  egga 
in  the  north. 

Other  birds,  which  are  born  in  our  own  country,  and  which  may 
be  considered  as  properly  belonging  to  it,  quit  us  in  autumn  ;  and 
after  passing  the  winter  in  warm  climates,  they  revisit  us  in 
the  spring,  or  perhaps,  avoiding  the  moderate  warmth  of  our 
summer,  they  emigrate  to  Arctic  regions.  Others  again,  natives  of 
southern  climates,  come  to  the  north  to  escape  from  the  ardouj 


294  THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  The  bird  that  hath  been  limed,  with   trembling  wings  rnis- 
doubtetii  every  bush." — SiiAKbPEUJi. 


of    a    summer's    sun  ;     and    arrive    in    the   midst    of    our    own 
fine   weather. 

There  are  also  some  which  never  remain  in  temperate  climates, 
but  merely  pass  through  them  on  their  annual  migrations.  The 
time  of  the  arrival  and  departure  of  these  travellers  is  generally 
fixed  definitely  for  each  species,  and  in  many  instances  may  be 
calculated  upon  to  a  day. 

945.  Another  fact  not  less  curious  in  the  history  of  birds  is  the  power  by  which 
they  direct  their  course  in  unknown  countries,  and  distinguish  at  immense 
distances  the  immediate  vicinity  of  their  nests.  Swallows  furnish  a  remarkable 
instance  of  this,  .  These  little  birds  make  very  long  journeys  at  the  time  of 
migration  ;  and  yet,  by  a  singular  instinct,  they  know,  in  the  following  spring,  how 
to  find  again  the  places  where  they  had  formerly  established  themselves,  and 
always  return  to  them.  This  fact  has  been  ascertained  by  attaching  to  the  feet  of 
several  swallows  small  silken  threads  to  establish  their  identity.  They  build  their 
first  nest  near  that  in  which  they  were  born  ;  the  chimney-swallow  makes  its  nest 
every  year  above  that  of  the  preceding  year,  and  the  house-swallow  establishes 
itself  in  that  which  it  had  quitted  the  autumn  before.  Indeed,  it  has  been  known 
for  the  same  couples  to  repair  to  their  old  nests,  almost  without  taking  the  trouble 
to  rt-pair  them,  for  eighteen  years  consecutively.  Swallows  show  on  other  occa 
sions,  also,  a  singular  power  of  directing  themselves  towards  a  particular  place  from 
which  they  are  at  a  considerable  distance.  If  a  hen  that  is  sitting  is  carried  to  a 
distance,  confined  in  a  cage,  and  liberty  afterwards  given  to  her,  she  first  rises  to  a 
considerable  height,  as  if  to  reconnoitre  the  country,  and  then  flies  in  a  straight 
line  to  the  spot  where  she  has  left  her  brood. 

946.  Wliy  do  birds  when  flying  in  flocks  settle  themselves  into 
a  triangular  body  '/ 

Because  the  position  so  assumed  is  the  one  best  fitted  to  cut  the 
air  with  the  greatest  ease  and  rapidity. 

In  this  mode  of  flight,  the  leading  bird,  which  divides  the  air  in 
advance  of  the  others,  has  the  most  arduous  post ;  and  in  order  to 
obtain  relief,  the  bird  occupying  this  place  goes  to  tiie  rear  after  a 
certain  time,  and  is  succeeded  by  another. 

947.  Why  do   birds  which  take  long  flights  usually  fly  high  ? 
It   is   supposed  that  high  flight  is  less  fatiguing,  owing  to   a 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  295 


"  The  wanderers  of  heaven 
Each  to  his  home  retire,  -ave  those  that  love 
To  take  their  pastime  in  the  troubled  air, 
Or  skimming  flutter  round  the  dimply  pool." — THOMSON. 

certain  density  of  the  atmosphere,  which  is  best  suited  to  the 
weight  and  action  of  the  wings  of  birds  and  which  cannot  be 
found  nearer  the  earth. 

Another  reason  also  may  be,  that  the  upper  regions  to  which 
birds  thus  ascend  are  exempt  from  the  momentary  gusts  and 
squalls  to  which  the  lower  atmospheric  strata  are  subject. 

948.  Eagles  are  heavy  birds,  even  for  their  powerful  wings,  and  yet  they  are 
high  flyers,  although  their  abodes  are  at  great  elevations  in  the  mountains. 
Wild  geese  and  herons  take  the  sky  when  they  set  out  on  long  journeys. 
Rooks  may  be  seen  to  adjust  the  height  of  their  daily  excursions  from  the  rookeries 
to  the  distance  at  which  the  pasture  upon  which  they  feed  lies  ;  and  the  swallow 
tribe  wheel  about  far  more  rapidly  and  gracefully  when  they  fly  high  before  rain, 
than  when  they  skim,  the  pools  in  fine  weather.  When  birds  are  in  long  and 
swift  flight,  they  acquire  a  momentum  in  proportion  to  their  velocity,  and  the 
difference  between  their  specific  gravity  and  that  of  the  air.  In  consequence  of  this 
momentum,  they  continue  their  progressive  motion  with  much  less  effort,  which  is 
of  itself  sufficient  to  explain  why  they  prefer  flying  high. 

949.  Why  are,  birds  which  winter  out  of  England  supplied 
with  a  cover  of  black  down  under  their  feathers  ? 

Because  black  is  a  colour  capable  of  retaining  the  greatest 
amount  of  heat,  and  in  this  instance  the  object  is,  to  keep  in 
the  heat  arising  from  the  heart  and  the  circulation  of 
the  blood. 

950.  It  is  likewise  remarkable  that  this  provision  is  not  found  in  larger 
birds— for  which  there  is  also  a  reason.  Small  birds  are  much  more  exposed  to  the 
cold  than  large  ones,  forasmuch  as  they  present,  in  proportion  to  their  bulk,  a  much 
larger  surface  to  the  air.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  small  birds  should  be  more 
warmly  clad  than  larger  ones  ;  and  this  appears  to  be  the  expedient  by  which  that 
exigency  is  provided  for. 

951.  Why  are  the  birds  which  are  brought  alive  to  England 
from  distent  regions  generally  hard-billed? 

Becau*^  hard-billed  birds  subsist  on  seeds  which  are  easily 
carried  OIL  board  ship  ;  while  the  soft-billed  birds,  which  are 
supported  by  worms  or  insects,  or  as  a  substitute,  fresh  raw  meat, 
can  obtain  neither  in  long  voyages. 


296 


THE   REASON   WHY: 


"  Meanwhile  the  tepid  caves,  and  pens,  ?.j,I  sLoarcs, 
Their  brood  as  numerous  hatch,  for  the  cf/g  that  soon 
Bursting  with  kindly  rupture  forth  diseios'd 
Their  callow  young." — MILTON. 

952.   WJty    have,   some   species   &f   birds  extremely  s&ft   bills? 

Because  the  class  of  birds  thus  famished  have  to  seize  theiy 
prey  quickly,  as  they  often  catch  it  while  it  is  on  the  wing  ;  though 
they  do  not  fly  after  it,  rapidity  of  motion  both  in  darting  at  the 
food,  and  in  opening  and  shutting  both  with  firmness  and  sharpness 
at  the  tip,  are  the  requirements  of  such  a  bill ;  and  lightness  in  its 
general  structure  is  essential  to  quick  motion.  These  bills  are, 
in  yery  many  species,  so  thin  and  weak  that  they  are  not  able 
to  break  the  coat  of  a  vegetable  seed. 


953.    Why   do   Urds  lay  egg*  ? 


Because,  to  bear  their  yonng 
in  any  other  manner,  would 
encumber  the,  body,  and  mate 
rially  interfere  with  the  active 
movements  that  are  charac 
teristic  of  the  feathered  tribes. 
As  soon  as  an  egg  becomes 
large  and  heavy  enough  to 
be  cumbersome  to  the  bird, 
it  is  removed  from  the  body, 
and  deposited  in  a  nest,  which, 
in  some  respects,  may  be  re 


garded  as  an  artificial  womb. 


A  shell  impervious  to  air  protects  the  germ  of  life  within,  until 
from  two  to  twenty  eggs  have  accumulated,  and  then,  although 
laid  at  different  intervals,  the  incubation  commences,  and  the 
young  birds  are  hatched  at  the  same  time. 

954.  Why  do  the  eggs  of  birds  contain  two  distinct  substances^ 
the  white  and  the  yolk  ? 


The  white,  or  albumen,  of  the  egg>  supplies  nourishment  to  the 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  297 


"  Tlie  man  who  can  see  without  pleasure  a  hen  gather  her 
chickens  under  her  wintr,  or  the  train  of  ducklings  follow  their 
parent  into  the  i^ond,  ie  like  him  who  has  no  music  in  his 
soul." — Kxox. 


chick  whilst  it  is  in  the  shell  ;  the  yolk  is  embraced  in  the 
of  the  chick  when  excluded  from  the  shell,  and  a  duct  leads  from 
the  membrane  enclosing  this  mass  of  nutriment  into  the  first 
intestine.  Thus  the  chick  is  nourished,  not  only  wliilst  enclosed 
in  the  shell,  but  also  during  its  first  feeble  existence, 

955.  When  we  hold  an  egg  steadily,  and  chip  it  at  the  upper  part,  we  find  the 
yolk  close  to  the  shell,  and  on  the  upper  surface  a  pale  vesicle,  3,  which  contains  the 

embryo  chick.  When  the  hen  sits,  the  heat  of  her 
body  developes  the  action  of  the  living-  principle  in 
the  embryo,  and  on  the  second  and  third  day  a  little 
zone  of  blood-vessels,  4,  4,  4,  appears  ;  these  vessels 
run  towards  the  embryo,  and  carry  nourishment  to 
it  ;  and  day  by  day  we  may  watch  its  sensible 
growth.  From  the  delicacy  of  this  action,  we  may 
perceive  how  necessary  it  is  that  the  embryo  at  an 
early  period  should  be  close  to  the  breast  of  the  hen, 
and  not  at  the  cold  bottom  of  the  nest.  We  shall 
now  see  how  it  is  accomplished  • — The  yolk  is  a  globe 
of  nutritious  matter,  and  the  little  vesicle  with  the 
embryo  is  involved  in  the  surrounding  membrane, 
and  consequently  is  at  the  surface  of  the  globe.  If 
this  globe  had  the  axis  of  its  revolution  in  the 

centre,  it  would  not  move  with  the  change  of  the  position  of  the  egg.  But  the  axis 
being  below  the  centre,  it  must  turn  round  with  every  change  in  the  position  of  the 
egg,  whether  the  globe  be  heavier  or  lighter  than  the  surrounding  white  :  were  it 
heavier,  it  would  revolve  so  as  to  bring  the  embryo  to  the  lower  part  of  the  shell 
—were  it  lighter,  to  the  upper  part  of  the  shell.  It  is  lighter,  and  the  matter  stands 
thus : — The  yolk  is,  as  it  were,  anchored  at  two  points,  and  the  attachments  being 
below  the  centre,  and  the  yolk  being  lighter  than  the  surrounding  white,  it 
revolves  like  a  buoy,  and  the  vesicle  containing  the  embryo  is  thus  kept 
always  uppermost.* 

956.  Why  has  the    young   chick  a  hard  scaly  substance  upon 
its    beak? 

This  curious  provision  is  designed  to  assist  the  young  bird  in 
breaking  the  shell,  at  a  time  when  its  bill  is  too  soft  for 
that  purpose. 

The  manner  in  which  the  young  chick  breaks  the  egg  is  one  of 

*  Paley's  "  Natural  Theology." 
13* 


298  THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  The  yolke  of  the  egge  cannot  be  without  the  whyte,  nor  the 
•whyte  -without  the  yolke ;  no  more  raaye  the  clergy  and  the 
lordes  be  one  without  another." — FROISSAKT'S  CHUOMCLKS. 


the  most  wonderful  operations  of  instinct.  The  instrument  which 
it  employs  is  a  small  protuberance  on  its  upper  mandible,  called 
the  bill-scale,  which  has  no  other  use,  and  accordingly  drops  off 
soon  after  the  bird  is  hatched. 

957.  This  bill-scale  is  provided  with  a  sharp  cutting  edge,  the  use  of  which  is  to 
cut  through  the  membrane  which  fines  the  shell.     Were  it  not  for  this,  the  shell 


would  break,  while  the  membrane  would  stretch,  and  the  chicken  would  still 
remain  a  prisoner. 

The  egg-shell  is  formed  by  a  solidified  deposit  from  the  blood-vessels  of  the 
egg-duct  of  the  parent  bird  ;  but  it  is  permeable  to  air,  which  is  necessary  to  the 
life  of  the  embryo.  The  shell  is  lined  by  two  membranes :  the  one  external  and 
roxigh,  so  that  it  adheres  to  the  shell ;  the  other  exceedingly  smooth,  so  that  it 
allows  of  the  rotation  of  the  contained  parts.  And,  at  one  extremity  of  the  egg, 
there  is  a  little  sack  hlled  with  air  containing  an  unusual  proportion  of  oxygen, 
which  is  employed  in  giving  vitality  to  the  awakening  germ. 

958.  Wliy  can  a  recently  hatched  bird  exist  for  many  hours 
without  food  ? 

Because  a  portion  of  the  yolk  of  the  egg  yet  remains  in  its 
body,  and  by  that  it  continues  to  be  nourished. 

959.  The  wisdom  of  this  provision  is  obvious  :  had  the  first-born  bird  needed 
immediate  food,  it  must  either  have  been  starved,  or  the  mother,  whilst  providing 
for  it,  must  have  deserted  her  other  ef/ys,  and  thus  destroyed  the  rest  of  her  family  : 
but,  under  this  arrangement,  the  mother  may,  without  injury  to  her  first-born, 
continue  to  sit  on  her  nest  till  all  her  little  ones  are  hatched,  which  somet.Jaes 
takes  more  thrui  a  day. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  299 

"  Some  to  the  rude  protection  of  the  thorn 
Commit  their  feeble  offspring  :   the  cleft  tree 
Offers  its  kind  concealment  to  a  few, 
Their  food  its  insects,  and  its  moss  their  nests." — THOMSOX. 

960.  Wliy    do     the,    number    of    eggs    laid    by    the    different 
species  of  birds  vary  so   considerably  ? 

The  number  of  eggs  laid  by  birds  is  wisely  and  beneficently 
regulated  by  the  difficulty  or  ease  with  which  the  particular  kind 
of  food  upon  which  the  bird  subsists  may  be  obtained.  Thus, 
large  birds  of  prey  which  live  upon  flesh,  such  as  eagles,  vultures, 
and  falcons,  usually  lay  two  eggs,  rarely  more  than  three,  and 
frequently  only  one.  Birds  that  live  principally  upon  seeds  and 
insects,  and  thus  find  abundance  of  food,  not  only  lay  a  larger 
number  of  eggs,  but  often  hatch  two  and  three  broods  in  the  year 
so  that  these  families  increase  rapidly. 

961.  Why  do  birds  select  silk,  cotton,  wool,  fur,  and  doivn  as 
materials  for  lining  their  nests  ? 

B3cause  these  substances  are  non-conductors  of  heat ;  and  as  it  is 
very  essential  that  the  nest  should  be  kept  perfectly  warm,  they 
could  not  possibly  select  more  appropriate  materials  for  tho 
purpose. 

962.  In  what  manner  do  birds  build  and  prepare  their  nests  ? 

As  the  laying  season  approaches,  the  bird,  conscious  of  the 
coming  event,  occupies  herself  in  the  construction  of  a  dwelling, 
suited  by  its  materials  and  form  to  the  little  beings  to  which  she 
is  about  to  give  life. 

Such  a  structure  must  fulfil  several  conditions.  In  its  magnitude 
and  form  it  must  correspond  with  the  magnitude  and  number  of 
eggs  to  be  laid,  and  with  the  body  of  the  motiier  who  is  to  sit 
upon  them. 

It  must  be  so  shaped  as  to  keep  the  eggs  securely  together,  and  its 
materials  must  be  soft,  so  as  not  to  injure  by  undue  pressure  its 
tender  occupants. 

ri'o  prevent  the  escape  of  the  warmth  imparted  by  the  mother, 


300 


THE   REASON    WHY  : 


"  When  unobserved 

Pluck  from  the  barn  a  straw,  till  soft  and  -warm, 
Clean  and  complete  their  habitation  grows. — THOMSON. 


it  must  be  thickly  lined  with  non  conductors  of  heat.     All  tbesa 
conditions  are  fulfilled  with  the  skill  of  a  natural  philosopher. 


963.  The  nests  of  the  larger  class  of  birds  of  hardier  nature  are  of  rude  con 
struction  ;  but  those  of  the  smaller  species  display,  in  a  remarkable  manner,  the 

qualities  here  indicated.  The  parents 
of  the  coming  offspring,  father  and 
mother,  co-operate  in  the  construction 
of  the  nest,  for  the  external  part  c-1 
which  straw  and  twigs  are  collecteo., 
and  woven  into  a  sort  of  basket-work. 
This  not  possessing  the  requisite 
durability,  and  allowing,  moreover, 
the  air  to  penetrate,  and  the  heat  to 
escape,  a  quantity  of  fine  clay  is 
collected  with  considerable  labour,  and 
worited  into  a  sort  of  mastic  by  moans 
of  a  viscous  fluid  secreted  by  glands 
placed  under  the  tongue  of  the  bird. 
With  this  mastic,  the  parents  plaster 
the  interior  of  the  nest,  carefully  stopping  up  every  crevice  and  air-hole.  The  floor 
of  the  nest,  however,  formed  by  such  plaster  is  necessarily  hard,  and  would  injure 
the  yo"ti(rlings  by  its  pressure.  The  parents,  therefore,  fabricate  a  carpet,  which 
they  spread  upon  the  floor  of  the  nest,  over  which  they  place  a  soft  mattress,  the 
materials  of  which  consist  of  wool  and  hairs  taken  from  the  backs  of  animals  and 
the  cottony  parts  of  certain  plants.  The  countless  journeys  and  fatiguing  labour 
necessary  to  accumulate  hair  by  hair,  and  filament  by  filament,  may  be  easily 
conceived.  Sometimes  the  bird  strips  its  own  breast  of  natural  down  to  form 
a  bed  for  its  young.  Thus  the  eider  duck  provides  for  the  comfort  of  its 
offspring,  by  taking  from  its  own  body  part  of  that  down  which  is  sought  for  and 
collected  at  such  a  cost  for  the  pillow  of  luxury. 

964.  Why    do  some    birds  frequently    vary    the    materials   of 
iheir  nests  ? 

This  is  doubtlessly  done  for  the  purpose  of  assimilating  the 
nest  in  appearance  to  surrounding  objects,  so  as  to  accommodate 
their  habitation  "to  existing  circumstances,  anu  to  secure  it 
from  observation. 

965.  Why    do    some     birds    maJce    their    nests    warmer    than 
the  nests  of  other  birds  ? 

Because    the   first-mentioned   are   those   which   are   necessarily 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


301 


"  Enjoy  the  spring  of  love  and  youth, 

To  some  good  angel  leave  the  rest; 
For  timL'  will  teach  thee  soon  the  truth, 

There  are  no  birds  in  last  year's  nest." — LONGFELLOW. 


a  longer  time  away  from  their  nests,  while  the  latter  birds  are 
those  which  procure  their  food  more  readily. 

966.  Thus  we  see  the  duck,  and  many  aquatic  birds,  which  have  a  voracious 
appetite,  and  have  often  to  go  over  a  considerable  space  of  ground  in  search  of  food, 
and  aro  consequently  a  long  time  absent  from  their  nest,  cover  up  their  eggs 
with  a  quantity  of  down  and  feathers,  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  being 
chilled. 

In  like  manner,  the  long-tailed 
tiimfiuse,  who,  having  from  twelve 
to  fifteen  young  ones  to  provide 
for,  must  necessarily  be  a  long 
time  away  from  them  in  search  of 
food,  so  that  she  cannot  herself 
impart  the  necessary  warmth  to 
her  torood  by  sitting  on  them,  as 
most  birds  do,  not  only  lines  her 
nest  with  a  profusion  of  the  softest 
feathers  and  down,  but  makes  it 
almost  in  the  shape  of  a  ball,  with 
a  small  hole  hi  the  side  to  enter  at, 
so  that  the  young  are  effectually 
protected  from  cold  ia  their  snug 
abode. 

The  thrush,  on  the  contrary,  who  can  so  readily  procure  worms  on  a  lawn,  or  in 
a  meadow,  so  that  it  is  not  necessary  for  both  the  parent  birds  to  be  absent  in  search 
of  food  at  the  same  time,  lines  its  nest  with  clay.  The  nest  &f  the  rook,  also,  which, 
in  an  exposed  situation,  has  but  little  warmth  of  lining  in  it ;  but  then  the  hen 
seldom  leaves  it,  and  is  fed  during  the  period  of  incubation  by  the  male  bird. 

967.  Why   will   birds    sometimes  hesitate  in   their  flight,  when 
upon    carrying     building    materials     to     their    nest,     they     we 
observed  f 

Because  they  are  cautious  not  to  betray  the  locality  of  their 
nests,  the  knowledge  of  which  might  subject  them  to 
future  depredations. 

968.  Mr.  Broderip  relates  the  following  incident  illustrative  of  this  caution  :— 
"  As  I  was  one  day  passing  the  National  Gallery,  I  saw  a  sparrow  fly  down  to 
the  neighbouring  cab-stand  and  pick  up  a  very  long  straw,  with  which  it  flew  'vith 
some    labour  towards   the  building.      The  long  streaming    straw  attracted   the 
atu-ntion  of  some  of  the  pedestrians,  who  stopped  and  looked  at  the  loaded  little 


302  THE    HEASON    WHY  : 


Oft  when  returning  with  her  loaded  bill, 

Th'  astonished  mother  finds  a  vacant  )iest, 

Uobb'd  by  the  hard  hand  of  unrelenting  clowns." — THOMSON. 


bird,  which  was  directing  its  flight  towards  the  portico  of  the  Gallery;  but  rinding 
its  motions  watched,  it  turned  short  round  and  perched  with  its  straw  on  one  of 
the  window-sills,  and  the  people  then  passed  on.  Presently  it  flew  again  towards 
the  portico,  but  the  people  again  stopping  and  looking,  it  came  back  to  the 
window,  until  the  second  lot  of  gazers  went  their  way.  The  little  bird  then 
started  again  with  its  straw  towards  one  of  the  same  pillars,  and,  cutting  round 
it  so  as  to  avoid  prying  eyes  as  much  as  possible,  bore  it  to  the  capital  of  one  of  the 
pilasters  and  disappeared,  straw  and  all,  into  the  snug  nook  made  by  a  part  of  the 
projecting  ornament,  which  it  had  chosen  as  the  place  for  making  its  nest. 

069.  Why  do  the  young  birds  of  some  species  demand  the 
parents'  care  for  a  longer  period  than  others  ? 

The  condition  of  young  birds  depends  upon  the  state  in  which 
they  emerge  from  the  shell.  The  partridge  and  the  plover  come  out 
of  the  shell  in  full  activity,  and  may  be  said,  in  part  at  least,  to  find 
their  own  food  in  the  very  same  hour.  Even  at  this  stage  they 
run  very  rapidly,  and  have  a  clothing  of  down,  which  protects 
them  from  change  of  temperature  during  the  early  period  of 
their  existence. 

The  7*00/4;,  on  the  contrary,  comes  forth  from  the  shell  callow,  and 
in  a  helpless  state,  so  that  it  would  perish  if  not  fed  by  the 
parent  bird  ;  and  if  not,  in  the  early  stage,  sheltered  by  that 
bird  during  the  night.  Its  feathers  are  not  preceded  by  a  downy 
coat,  but  first  appear  in  little  tufts  issuing  from  those  sheathes  in 
which  they  are  produced.  The  young  rook  is  accordingly  fed  by 
its  parent  for  a  considerable  time,  and  does  not  perch  apart  from 
the  nest ;  nor  does  it  take  flight,  or  in  anyway  provide  for  itself, 
until  it  is  fully  fledged. 

970.  Why  do  male  birds  evince  an  affection  for  their  offspring, 
while  on  the  other  hand,  in  many  other  species  of  the  animal 
creation,  the  male  parent  neglects,  and  docs  not  even  recognise, 
its  young? 

This  exceptional  instance  of  parental  affection  on  the  part  of  the 
male  bird  is  a  beautiful  provision  of  Providence  in  accordance 
with  the  necessities  and  habits  of  the  creature.  Amongst  birds, 
food  for  the  young  has  in  most  instances  to  be  brought  from,  a 


NATUIIAL   HISTORY.  303 


4«  Encourag'd  thus,  she  brought  her  younglings  nigh, 
Watching  the  motions  of  her  patron's  eye,   .' 
And  drank  a  sober  draught;  the  rest  amaz'd, 
Stood  mutely  still,  and  on  the  stranger  gazed." — DHTDEK. 

distance,  and  much  assiduity  is  required  to  collect  it  in  sufficient 
quantity,  the  voracity  of  nestlings  being  almost  insatiable. 

Therefore,  the  assistance  of  the  male  in  this  work  is  in  most 
species  almost  indispensable.  When  the  brood  is  numerous,  it 
would  be  extremely  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  for  the  female 
alone  to  procure  the  requisite  supply. 

But  in  animals  which  suckle  their  young,  the  assistance  of  the 
male  parent  is  not  needed. 

971.  The  affection  of  both  male  and  female  birds  for  their  young  has  been 
manifested  in  a  remarkable  degree  in  instances  that  have  fallen  under  human 
observation.  "  When  I  was  a  boy,"  says  Smellic,  "  I  carried  off  a  nest  of  young 
sparrows,  about  a  mile  from  my  place  of  residence.  After  the  nest  was  completely 
removed,  and  while  I  was  marching  home  with  them  in  triumph,  I  perceived, 
with  some  degree  of  astonishment,  both  the  parents  following  me  at  some  distance, 
and  observing  my  motions  in  perfect  silence.  A  thought  then  struck  me  that  they 
might  follow  me  home,  and  feed  the  young  according  to  their  usual  manner. 
When  just  entering  the  door  I  held  up  the  nest,  and  made  the  young  ones  utter  the 
cry  expressive  of  the  desire  of  food.  I  immediately  put  the  nest  and  the  young  in 
the  corner  of  a  wire  cage,  and  placed  it  on  the  outside  of  a  window.  I  chose  a 
situation  in  the  room  where  I  could  perceive  all  that  should  happen  without  being 
myself  seen.  The  young  animals  soon  cried  for  food.  In  a  short  time  both 
parents,  having  their  bills  filled  with  small  caterpillars,  came  to  the  cage,  and 
after  chatting  a  little,  as  we  do  with  a  friend  through  the  lattice  of  a  prison,  gave  a 
small  worm  to  each.  This  parental  intercourse  continued  regularly  for  some  time, 
till  the  young  ones  were  completely  fledged,  and  had  acquired  a  considerable 
degree  of  strength.  I  then  took  one  of  the  strongest  of  them  and  placed  him  on 
the  outside  of  the  cage,  in  order  to  observe  the  conduct  of  the  parents  after  one  of 
their  offspring  was  emancipated.  In  a  few  minutes  both  parents  arrived,  loaded, 
as  usual,  with  food.  They  no  sooner  perceived  that  one  of  their  children  had 
escaped  from  prison,  than  they  fluttered  about  and  made  a  thousand  demonstrations 
of  joy,  both  with  their  wings  and  with  their  voices.  These  tumultuous  expressions 
of  unexpected  happiness  at  last  gave  place  to  a  more  calm  and  soothing  conversa 
tion.  By  their  voices  and  their  movements  it  was  evident  that  they  earnestly 
entreated  him  to  follow  them,  and  to  fly  from  his  present  dangerous  state.  He 
seemed  to  be  impatient  to  obey  their  mandates  ;  but,  by  his  gestures,  and  the  feeble 
Bounds  he  uttered,  he  plainly  expressed  that  he  was  afraid  to  try  an  exertion  he 
had  never  before  attempted.  They,  however,  incessantly  repeated  their  solicita 
tions  ;  by  flying  alternately  from  the  cage  to  a  neighbouring  chimney-top,  they 
endeavoured  to  show  him  how  easily  the  journey  was  to  be  accomplished.  He  at 
last  committed  himself  to  the  air,  and  alighted  in  safety.  On  his  arrival,  another 
scene  of  clamorous  and  active  joy  was  exhibited.  Next  day,  I  repeated  the  same 
experiment,  by  exposing  aiother  of  the  voimg  ones  on  the  top  of  the  cage.  I 


304  THE    REASON 


;  You  curious  chanters  of  the  -wood, 
That  warble  forth  dame  Nature's  lays, 
Thinking  your  voices  under.-tood. "—\Vorrox. 


observed  the  same  conduct  with  the  remainder  of  the  brood,  which  consisted  of  four. 
I  need  hardly  add  that  not  one  either  of  the  parents  or  children  ever  afterwards 
revisited  the  execrated  cage." 

Although  sparrows  are  ordinarily  regarded  in  a  very  indifferent  light,  they 
are,  in  addition  to  their  utility,  birds  of  a  very  kindly  nature,  living  in  habits  of 
great  sociability  with  each  other.  Several  instances  are  related  of  their  having  been 
observed  feeding  the  young  of  other  birds  which  have  been  in  a  state  of  captivity ; 
and  there  is  one  well-attested  anecdote  of  a  sparrow,  which,  having  been  caught  by 
the  leg  by  a  piece  of  worsted,  from  which  it  could  not  extricate  itself,  was  tended 
and  fed  by  some  bird-;  of  its  own  species  through  a  whole  winter  ;  and,  when  it  was 
released,  was  greeted  with  evident  marks  of  satisfaction  by  all  its  former  com 
panions  and  friends.  A  farmer's  servant  placed  a  nest  of  young  sparrows  in  a  trap- 
cage,  and  caught  forty  old  birds,  all  coming  with  food  in  their  mouths  to  feed  the 
helpless  young.  A  lady  residing  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London  hung  out  a  cage 
near  her  balcony,  in  which  was  a  young  bird,  and  it  was  fed  for  many  weeks  by 
sparrows.  Similar  instances  of  kindness  and  solicitude  on  the  part  of  these  birds 
might  be  multiplied  to  infinity. 

972.  Why  are  small  birds,  such  as  those  of  the  sparrow  and 
swallow  tribes,  so  numerous  and  widely  diffused  ? 

Because  they  f\re  the  chief  agents  for  lueping  insect  life  within 
proper  limits.  Without  them  the  myriads  of  minute  creatures 
that  would  prey  upon  vegetables  would  so  multiply,  that  famine 
would  be  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  industry  would  meet  onl} 
with  a  precarious  reward. 

973.  It  appears  from  the  papers,  that  in  New  Zealand  the  country,  at  particular 
seasons,  is  invaded  by  armies  of  caterpillars,  which  clear  off  the  grain  crops  as 
completely  as  if  mowed  down  by  a  scythe.  With  the  view  of  counteracting  this 
plague,  a  novel  importation  has  lately  been  made.  M^.  Brodie  shipped  three 
hundred  sparrows,  carefully  selected  from  the  best  hedgerows  in  England.  The 
food  alone  put  on  board  for  them  cost  £18.  This  sparrow  question  has  been  a  long 
standing  matter  of  discussion  in  Auckland ;  but  the  necessity  to  farmers  of  small 
birds  to  keep  down  the  grubs  is  admitted  on  all  sides.  There  is  no  security  in  New 
Zealand  against  the  invasion  of  myriads  of  caterpillars,  which  devastate  the  crops 
Mr.  Brodie  has  already  acclimatised  the  pheasant,  which  is  abundant  in  the  north. 
The  descent  from  the  pheasant  to  sparrows  is  somewhat  of  an  anti-climax ;  but 
should  the  latter  multiply,  the  greatest  benefit  will  have  been  conferred  on 
the  country. 

974.  Why  have  the  different  species  of  birds  distinct  volets,  01 
cries  ? 

This    provision   has   doubtless    been   made    in  order    that   the 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  305 


"  The  gay  troops  begin 

In  gallant  thought  to  plume  the  painted  wing, 
And  try  again  the  long  forgotten  strain, 
At  first  faint  warbled."— THOMSON. 

members  of  each  species  might  make  kjiown  their  wants  and 
dangers,  and  otherwise  communicate  with  each  other. 

That  some  of  the  notes  of  birds  are  a  language  designed  to  convey 
a  meaning  is  obvious  from  the  very  different  sound  uttered  by  these 
creatures  at  particular  periods  ;  the  spring  voices  become  changed 
ao  summer  advances,  and  the  requirements  of  the  early  season 
have  ceased  :  the  summer  excitements  and  informations  are  not 
needed  in  autumn,  and  the  notes  conveying  such  intelligence  are 
no  longer  heard 

The  periodical  calls  of  uaimals,  the  croaking  of  frogs,  &c.,  afford 
the  same  reason  for  concluding  that  the  sound  of  their  voices  by 
elevation,  depression,  or  modulation,  convey  intelligence  adapted  to 
their  wants  and  feelings. 

975.  Rennie  relates  • — "  We  recollect  having  our  attention  once  drawn  to  the  loud 
scolding  of  a  pair  of  chaffinches  in  a  copse,  a  circumstance  of  very  frequent 
occurrence  during  summer,  but  rendered  peculiar  in  the  instance  in  question  by  the 
birds  darting  down  almost  to  the  roots  of  the  bashes  at  some  distance  from  where 
we  stood,  from  which  we  concluded  their  scolding  was  not  directed  to  us.  The 
loud  "  pink,  pink  "  of  the  chaffinches  soon  attracted  to  the  spot  a  crowd  of  their 
woodland  neighbours,  among  whom  a  redbreast  took  the  lead,  followed  by  a  green- 
bird,  a  song-thrush,  and  about  a  dozen  of  the  smaller  summer  birds,  all  brought 
together  by  curiosity  to  learn  what  the  chaffinches  were  scolding  about.  From  all 
of  these  clamorous  creatures  giving  rent  to  the  same  expression  of  feeling,  we  con 
cluded  that  some  common  enemy  had  made  his  appearance  ammg  them;  and, 
upon  looking  narrowly  into  the  bushes,  we  perceived  a  pine-martin  stealing  along, 
occasionally  throwing  a  sly,  or  rather  contemptuous  look  at  his  vociferous  railers, 
but  otherwise  continuing  a  careful  prying  search  into  every  hole  and  bosh  for  a  nest 
of  eggs  or  young  of  which  he  might  make  a  breakfast." 

White,  of  Selborne,  remarks  : — "  When  the  hen  turkey  leads  forth  her  young 
brood,  she  keeps  a  watchful  eye,  and,  if  a  bird  of  prey  appear,  though  ever  so  high 
in  the  air,  the  careful  mother  announces  the  enemy  with  a  little  inward  moan,  and 
•watches  him  with  a  steady  and  attentive  look ;  but,  if  he  approach,  her  note 
becomes  earnest  and  alarming,  and  her  outcries  are  redoubled."  In  the  instance  of 
a  cock  bird  expressing  fear,  or  giving  an  alarm  to  the  hen  of  the  approach  of  danger 
near  the  nest,  the  tones  seem  to  be  varied  so  as  to  give  her  due  notice  either  to  keep 
close  and  still,  or  to  make  her  escape  with  as  much  caution  as  she  can." 

976.  Why  is  the  plumage  of  female  birds  generally  more 
sombre  than  that  of  males? 

This  would  -se.-m  to  be  a  prov;-i->n  inndc-  by  providence  to  favour 


306  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  She  plume?  her  feathers,  and  lets  grow  her  wings 
That  in  the  various  bustle  of  resort 
Were  all  too  ruffled,  and  sometimes  impaired." — MILTON. 


tJie  personal  concealment  of  female  birds,  and  consequently  that  of 
their  young,  from  the  depredations  of  birds  of  prey.  It  is  remarkable 
that  most  birds  that  are  under  no  apprehension  of  being  attacked, 
such  as  eagles,  owls,  hawks,  etc.,  the  females  are  uniformly 
covered  with  plumage  as  rich  as  that  of  the  males. 

977.  Why  is  the  plumage  of  young  birds  sombre,  and  less 
marked  than  when  they  bwome  older  ? 

Because,  if  the  young  had  their  full  plumage  the  first  year,  or 
when  they  quitted  their  nest,  they  would  in  their  then  feeble  state 
be  more,  exposed  to  be  killed  by  birds  of  prey  and  other  enemies. 
It  seems,  therefore,  a  benevolent  design  that  the  more  humble 
plumage  should  remain  on  them  until  they  are  better  able  to 
protect  themselves. 

978.  The  activity  and  watchfulness  of  birds  when  they  have  young  is  most 
surprising.  Dr.  Macgillivray  records  the  observations  made  by  a  friend  on  a  pair 
of  blue  titmice  when  rearing  their  young.  The  parent  birds  began  their  labour  of 
love  at  half-past  three  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  did  not  leave  off  till  eight  o'clock 
in  the  evening,  after  being  almost  incessantly  engaged  for  nearly  seventeen  hours. 
Mr  Weir  counted  their  various  returns  to  the  nest,  and  found  them  to  be  475.  Up 
to  four  o'clock,  as  a  breakfast,  they  were  fed  twelve  times  ;  between  five  and  six 
o'clock,  forty  time.0,  flying  to  and  from  a  plantation  more  than  150  yards  from  their 
nest ;  between  nine  and  ten  o'clock  they  fed  their  offspring  forty-six  times  ;  and 
they  continued  at  their  work  till  the  time  specified,  sometimes  bringing  in  a  single 
largo  caterpillar,  and  at  other  times  two  or  three  small  ones. 

979.  How  is  a  beautiful  provision  of  nature  illustrated  in  the 
disposition  of  the  feathers  upon  the  body  of  a  bird  ? 

The  feathers  are  all  placed  in  such  a  manner  that  the  action 
of  the  wind  from  before  shall  tend  to  smooth  them  down.  The 
shoulders  and  the  front  edges  of  the  wings  are  the  places,  however, 
on  which  the  beautiful  application  of  the  feathers  is  the  most 
striking,  as  they  are  not  only  most  difficult  to  fit  from  their  greater 
curvature,  but  are  those  which  are  most  exposed  during  flight.  The 
feathers  on  these  parts  are  so  placed  that,  let  the  wind  take  what 
dn-ection  it  may,  it  can  hardly  raise  or  ruffle  them. 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  307 

"  'Tis  reigning  noon ;  and,  vertical,  the  sun 
Darts  on  the  head  direct  his  forceful  rays. 
O'er  heaven  and  earth,  far  as  the  ranging1  eye 
Can  sweep,  a  dazzling  deluge  reigns."— THOMSON. 

980.  How  is  the  varied    colouring    of    the  plumage  of    birds 
accounted  for  ? 

The  variation  is  supposed  to  depend  upon  the  sun,  the  colour 
being  gay  and  glossy  according  as  birds  are  exposed  to  the  action  of 
that  luminary.  Whether  the  bright  colours  of  tropical  birds  are 
less  sentient  to  the  sun  than  the  more  sober  hues  of  the  birds  of 
cold  climates  it  is  difficult  to  say ;  but  the  smooth  surface  and 
metallic  lustre  must  reflect  the  light,  as  well  as  decompose  it  by 
that  refraction  which  shows  the  colours  ;  we  may,  therefore, 
conclude  that  the  variegated  plumage  of  birds  answers  as  a  sort  of 
protection  against  the  ardour  of  the  sun  in  those  climates  where 
such  protection  is  most  needed.* 

981.  The  brighter  colours  of  male  birds  may  be  in  some  degree  accounted  for 
upon  this  hypothesis  :  the  male  is  more  exposed  to  the  sun  than  the  female  ;  his 
more  active  life  and  greater  daring,  her  seasons  of  retirement  and  incubation,  at 
once  explain  this.    That  light  has  great  influence,  not  only  in  illuminating,  but  in 
developing  the  colours  of  bodies,  is  borne  out  by  the  fact  that  all  night-flying  birds 
and  insects  are  of  sombre  hues,  while  those  which  are  active  by  day  are,  with  only 
a  few  exceptions,  more  brilliantly  arrayed. 

• 

982.  Upon  what  mechanical  principles  do  birds  maintain  a 
standing 


In  standing,  a  base  of  sustentation  must  be  given  to  birds  of 
sufficient  magnitude,  and  in  such  a  position  as  to  keep  the  line  of 
direction  of  the  centre  of  gravity  within  it,  without  too  fatiguing 
exertion  of  the  muscles. 

983.  This  is  accomplished  partly  by  giving  the  leg  such  a  structure  that  the  tarsal 
bones,  which  extend  from  the  foot  to  the  body,  have  a  sufficient  length,  and  are  in 
clined  to  the  leg  bones,  so  as  to  direct  the  foot  forwards ;  while  the  body,  on  the  other 
hand,  assumes  such  a  position  that  the  spinal  column  is  inclined  more  or  less  upwards. 
The  flexibility  of  the  neck,  which  enables  the  animal  to  throw  the  head  more  or 
less  backwards,  and  in  bringing  the  centre  of  gravity  into  the  desired  position,  as 
eh*  *rn  in  fig.  1,  which  represents  the  ibis.  In  the  position  of  the  bird  here  shown, 

Partington's  "  Cyclopaedia." 


308 


THE    REASON    WHY  : 


More  certain  was  the  crowing  of  the  cock 

To  number  hours,  than  is  the  abbey  clock ; 

And  sooner  than  the  matin  bell  was  rung, 

He  clapp'd  his  wings  upon  his  roost  and  sung." — DKYDEN. 


the  centre  of  gravity  is  thrown  a  little  behind  the  centre  of  articulation  of  the  wings, 
<tnd  therefore  nearer  the  centre  of  the  base  of  sustentation  by  the  backward  position 
1  2 


of  the  head.  In  the  case  of  birds,  such,  for  example,  as  the  penguin,  fig.  2,  having 
a  short  and  neai-ly  inflexible  neck  and  legs,  which  are  incapable  of  being  advanced, 
the  animal,  when  it  stands,  is  obliged  to  assume  the  vertical  position.* 

984.  Why  do  many  birds  roost  upon  one  leg  ? 

Because  the  heavier  the  body  presses  upon  the  bent  joint,  from 
the  peculiar  construction  of  the  foot,  the  tighter  the  claws  are 
pulled  round  the  branch  or  perch  ;  and  it  follows  that  the  weight 
of  ihe  bird  must  pull  more  when  it  falls  upon  one  set  of  muscles, 
than  when  it  is  divided  between  the  two  sets ;  a  firmer  and 
steadier  position  is  by  this  means  achieved. 

985.  Why   does   the   formation  of    the  beak  of    birds  indicate 
the  substances  they  feed  upon  ? 

Because  nature  has  adapted  the  instrument  to  its  employment 
with  such  nicety  that  the  forms  of  the  beak  are  as  various  as  the 
qualities  of  the  substances  used  as  food  ;  and  so  close  and 
invariable  is  this  relation  between  the  mechanical  structure  of 
the  instrument  of  prehension  and  the  aliment,  that  a  praclical 


Larclner's  "  Animal  Physics.' 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


309 


Sight  is  the  most  perfect  and  most  delightful  of  all  the 
senses.  It  fills  the  mind  with  the  largest  variety  of  ideas, 
converses  with  objects  at  the  greatest  distance,  and  continues 
tht  longest  in  action  without  being  satiated."— SPKCTATOR. 

naturalist    can    infer    the    one    from    the    other    with    unerring 
certainty. 

986.  Examples  of  the  agreement  between  the  formation  of  the  beak  and  the  food 
of  the  bird  are  furnished  as  follows :— Sea-birds,  which  feed  on  fish  too  large  to 

be  swallowed  at  a  mouthful,  are  furnished 
with   a  large   beak,   hooked  at  the  end. 
But  this  instrument  is  much  longer,  and 
therefore  less  powerful,  though  sufficiently 
so  relatively  to  their  prey.      When  birds 
feed   on  such   fishes  and  reptiles    as  are 
small   enough   to    be    seized    and    easily 
swallowed,    the    beak     is     straight,    still 
greater  in  length  and  resembling  a  pair  of 
pincers,    as  those    of  the  martin  pecker, 
fig.    1.      Birds    living    on  insects  as  the 
bee-eater,  fig.   2,  have  slender  and  very 
long  beaks,  either  straight  or  very  slightly 
hooked,  except  when  they  catch  their  prey 
in    flight,    as    do    the    swallow    and    the 
goatsucker,  fig.  3,   in    which  the  bill  ia 
short,  broad,  deeply  cut,  so  as  to  enable 
them  to  present  a  large  mouth  to  receive 
their  prey.      Birds  which  live  on  grain,  on 
the  contrary,   such  as   the  sparrow, 
fig.  4,  have  a  short,  thick  bill,  con 
vex  above,  or  conical,  and  in  general 
straight,    the    upper    mandible    not 
projecting  over  the  lower.   A  singular 
modification  of  this  organ  of  prehen 
sion  is  presented  in  the  case  of  the 
3  4  pelican,    which   has  a   membranous 

receptacle,  consisting  of  a  pouch  or  pocket,  attached  to  its  lower  mandible,  in 
•which  it  collects  prey,  which  it  swallows  afterwards  at  leisure.      (See  942.) 


987.   Why    have    the,    eyes    of   birds 
discerning  near  or  distant  objects  than 


greater    facility  for 
of  other  animals  ? 


Because,  in  the  first  place,  birds  in  general  procufe  their  food 
by  the  aid  of  their  beak  ;  and,  the  distance  between  the  eye  and  the 
point  of  the  beak  being  small,  it  becomes  necessary  that  they 
should  have  the  power  of  seeing  very  near  objects  distinctly. 

On  the  other  hand,  from  being  often  elevated  much  above  the 
ground,  living  in  the  air,  and  moving  through  it  with  great 


310  THE    REASON    VTHY  : 


"The  eye  is  not  that  which  sees;  it  is  only  the  organ  by 
which  we  see.  The  car  is  not  that  which  hears,  but  the  organ 
by  which  we  hear  ;  and  so  on  of  the  rest." — REID. 

velocity,  they  require  for  their  safety,  as  well  as  for  assisting  them 
in  descrying  their  food,  a  pDwer  of  seeing  at  a  great  distance. 

938.  Two  peculiarities  are  found  in  the  eyes  of  birds.  The  one  is  a  bony,  yet,  in 
most  species,  a  flexible  rim  or  hoop,  surrounding  the  broadest  part  of  the  eye, 
which,  confining  the  action  of  the  muscles  to  that  part,  increases  the  effect  of  their 
lateral  pressure  upon  the  orb,  by  which  pressure  its  axis  is  elongated  for  the 
purpose  of  looking  at  very  near  objects.  The  other  peculiarity  is  an  additional 
muscle  to  dra^,  on  occasions,  the  cystalline  lens  back,  and  to  fit  the  same  eye  for 
the  viewing  of  very  distant  objects.  By  these  means,  the  eyes  of  birds  can  pass 
from  one  extreme  to  the  other,  on  a  scale  of  adjustment  as  convenient  as  it 
is  remarkable. 

989.  Why  is  the  hearing  of  birds  dependent  upon  the  internal 
structure,  rather  than  the  outward  development  of  the  organ  ? 

Because,  if  the  external  ear  existed  as  in  quadrupeds,  it  would 
obstruct  the  rapid  progress  of  birds  through  the  air,  and  be 
inconvenient  in  other  respects.  This  appendage  is  therefore  with 
held,  but  is  amply  compensated  for  by  a  peculiarity  in  the  internal 
structure,  which  enables  them  to  hear  with  perfect  distinctness 

.    990.   Why   do  birds  perch   with   their  faces  to    the   wind  ? 

Because,  if  a  bird  were  to  roost  with  its  tail  to  the  wind  it 
would  frequently  be  driven  from  its  perch :  the  wind  would,  by 
turning  the  feathers,  and  even  getting  under  the  wings,  have 
great  power  ;  and  the  action  of  that  power  would  unbend  the 
legs,  and  thereby  loosen  the  feet  from  the  perch.  But,  by  perching 
with  its  head  to  the  wind,  the  latter  becomes  a  means  of 
stability  to  the  bird. 

991.  The  birft  keeps  its  hold  on  the  perch  by  tendinous  elasticity  ;  the  flexure  of 
the  neck  is  beyond  that  position  which  would  be  repose  in  a  quadruped,  so  that  the 
tendons  of  the  extensors  are  tightened  ;  and  any  cause  which  agitates  the  perching 
feet,  at  the  same  instant  brings  the  neck  into  action,  and  extends,  elevates,  or 
depresses  the  head,  to  the  exact  extent  which  the  balance  requires.  Thus,  there  is, 
in  the  very  structure  of  the  bird,  a  means  of  resisting  any  casualty  that  might  drive 
it  from  its  perch,  and  that  without  the  exercise  of  any  more  volition  than 
icaompinics  the  breathing  of  a  human  being  when  asleep. 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  311 


"  The  starlinff,  distinguishable  from  the  rest  of  the  sparrow 
tribe,  by  the  plossy  green  of  its  feathers,  in  some  lights,  and 
purple  in  others,  breeds  in  caves  of  houses,  ruins,  hollow  trees, 
cliffs,  and  high  rocks."— GOLDSMITH. 

992.  Whij  are   birds   enabled   to   sleep    securely   when  perched 
on  the  branches  of  trees? 

Because  the  claws  of  birds  are  so  organized,  that  the  flexor 
muscles  pass  over  the  joints  of  the  knee  and  heel  in  such  a  manner, 
that,  when  the  latter  bend,  they  necessarily  press  on  the  tendons 
of  the  muscles,  and  make  them  bend  the  toe,-;  the  weight  of  the 
body  pressing  down  the  thighs  and  legs,  necessarily  produces 
this  action  ;  and,  as  a  consequence,  the  bird  grasps,  ivithout 
effort,  the  branch  on  which  it  is  perched,  and  maintains  itself  in 
a  fixed  position  without  watchfulness. 

993.  Why    do     starlings     frequently    accompany     rooks     in 
their    flight  ? 


Because  rooks  have  a  more  discerning  scent  than  starlings, 
and  lead  them  to  spots  productive  of  food. 

The  superior  power  of  finding  food  is  owing  to  rooks  having 
two  large  nerves  which  run  down  between  the  eyes  into  the  upper 
mandible,  which  invests  their  beaks  with  a  more  delicate  sensitive 
ness  than  other  round-billed  birds,  and  enables  them  to  grope  for 
their  food  when  out  of  sight. 

994.  Why  are  the  necks  of  birds  long,  and  easily  moveablc? 

Because  the  beak  is  generally  the  only  organ  of  prehension  by 
which  they  pick  their  food  from  the  ground  ;  and  the  extent  of 
the  neck  is  augmented,  in  order  to  admit  of  the  head  being 
brought  freely  to  the  ground  without  incommoding  the  body. 

995.  How    is    the    wisdom    of    the    Creator    shown    in    &** 
structure  of  the  head  and  neck  of  birds  ? 

In  the  heads  of  birds  teeth  are  dispensed  with,  and,  as  a  conse 
quence,  along  with  them,  the  thick  and  massive  jawbones  iat( 
which  they  must  have  been  implanted,  and  which  are  replaced 
by  a  light  strong  bill. 

Hence  mastication  is  very  limited,  and  the  muscles  subservient 


THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  To  these,  an  overgrowne  justice  of  peace, 

With  a  clarke  like  a  gizzard  thrust  under  each  arm ; 
And  warrants  for  sippets  laid  in  his  own  grease, 
Set  o're  a  chafing  dish  to  be  kept  warme."— B.  JOHNSOK. 

to  this  function  are  proportionately  small.  Everything  thus 
combines  to  render  the  head  light,  and  consequently  a  long  and 
slender  neck  is  sufficient  for  its  support. 

Had  it  been  necessary  to  sustain  heavier  a  head  at  the  extremity 
of  a  long  neck,  great  muscular  development  in  this  region  would 
have  been  required,  and  the  weight  so  much  increased,  as  to  have 
materially  diminished  the  powers  of  flight.  Moreover,  the  heavy 
head  at  the  extremity  of  the  lever  of  the  neck  would  have  deranged 
the  centre  of  gravity,  and  in  this  way  also  have  interfered 
with  flight. 

j9Q.  Why  does  the  breastbone  form  an  important  part  of  the 
organization  of  a  bird? 

Because  it  imparts  solidity  to  the  whole  of  the  framework,  and 
supplies  a  wide  base  upon  which  the  muscles  of  the  wings  are 
fastened  down  and  steadied.  The  breastbone  also  forms  a  kind 
of  box,  which,  during  the  time  the  body  is  stretched  out  in  flight, 
securely  retains  and  supports  the  soft  interior  of  the  bird. 

The  more  the  movements  of  the  wings  excite  the  great  muscles 
which  are  spread  over  the  inside  of  the  breastbone,  the  more  do 
those  muscles  brace  and  strengthen  the  frame  of  the  bird.  They 
bear  its  weight  up  to  the  wings,  and  the  wings  again,  by  their  long 
arched  form,  lay  it  upon  the  air.  Thus  as  the  bird  flies,  it  is 
almost  insensible  of  the  fact  that  its  body  is  heavy. 

997.  The  breast-bone  of  a  bird  secures  the  whole  length  of  the  body,  and  the  great 
central  spire  of  that  bone,  called  the  keel,  rises  from  it,  so  as  to  give  lodgment  and 
attachment  to  the  great  muscles  of  the  wings.  It  will  be  easily  understood  that 
this  keel  is  more  largely  developed  in  birds  of  passage,  since  its  greater  prominence 
implies  strength  of  wing  for  long-continued  flight.  Under  the  breast-bone,  and 
between  the  back-bone,  is  a  considerable  space,  occupied  by  air-cells.  These  cells 
represent  a  curious  provision  for  the  extension  of  the  body  of  the  bird,  indepen 
dently  of  weight.  The  air  does  not  only  pass  into  the  lungs  of  birds,  but  through 
them,  so  as  to  fill  a  series  of  cells,  composed  of  fine  membranes,  which  are  inter 
woven  with  all  the  viscera.  The  heart  is  surrounded  by  such  a  cell.  Two  great 
cells  are  attached  to  the  liver,  and  in  the  same  manner  all  the  viscera  of  the 
abdomen  are  interspersed  with  air-cells,  and  these  all  communicate.  The  air  thus 
admitted  into  the  interior  of  the  body  extends  even  into  the  bones.  By  inflating 
tiwse  cells,  birds  have  the  power  of  instantly  rendering  their  bodies  specijicall* 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  313 


Thy  style's  the  same  whatever  be  thy  theme, 

As  sonic  digestions  turn  all  meat  to  phlegm." — DOKSBT. 


lighter,  and  of  rising  upon  the  air  with  greater  case  :  when  they  detcend,  they 
txhaust  the  cells,  and  alight  with  greater  case, 

998.  Why  is  the  gizzard  such  an  important  organ  in  the 
structure  of  birds  ? 

Because  it  compensates  for  the  absence  of  teeth,  by  triturating  or 
grinding  the  food,  so  as  to  render  it  fit  for  digestion.  Every 
particle  of  food  which  requires  to  undergo  this  operation,  is  sub 
mitted  to  the  action  of  the  two  gristly  surfaces  which  form  a 
portion  of  the  organ,  and  produce  a  rotatory  motion  on 
the  food. 

999.  In  order  to  ascertain  the  peculiar  powers  of  the  gizzard,  several  experiments 
have  been  resorted  to,  some  of  which  would  appear  at  first  sight  to  be  cruel,  but 
which  in  the  end  proved  to  be  harmless.  "  Twelve  strong  tin  needles,"  says 
Spallanzani,  "were  firmly  fixed  in  a  ball  of  lead,  the  points  projecting  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  surface.  Thus  armed,  it  was  covered  with  a  case  of 
paper,  and  forced  down  the  throat  of  a  turkey.  The  bird  retained  it  for  a  day  and 
a  half  without  showing  the  least  symptoms  of  uneasiness.  Why  the  stomach 
should  have  received  no  injury  from  so  horrid  an  instrument  I  cannot  explain  :  the 
points  of  the  twelve  needles  were  broken  off  close  to  the  surface  of  the  bail,  except 
two  or  three,  of  which  the  stumps  projected  a  little  higher.  Two  of  the  points  of 
the  needles  were  found  among  the  food.  The  other  ten  I  could  not  discover,  either 
in  the  stomach  or  the  long  track  of  the  intestines ;  and  therefore  concluded  that 
they  had  passed  out." 

In  another  experiment,  which,  without  knowing  the  previous  facts,  we  might 
justly  have  deemed  still  more  cruel,  Spallanzani  tells  us  he  fixed  twelve  small 
lancets,  very  sharp  both  at  the  point  and  edges,  in  a  similar  ball  of  lead.  "  They  were 
such  as  I  use  for  the  dissection  of  small  animals.  The  ball  was  given  to  a  turkey 
cock,  and  left  eighteen  hours  in  the  stomach,  at  the  expiration  of  which  time  that 
organ  was  opened  ;  but  nothing-  appeared  except  the  naked  ball,  the  twelve  lancets 
having  been  broken  to  pieces  ;  I  discovered  three  in  the  large  intestines,  pointless 
and  mixed  with  the  other  contents  ;  the  other  nine  were  missing,  and  had  probably 
been  voided.  The  stomach  was  as  sound  and  entire  as  that  which  had  received 
the  needles. 

"  Two  capons,  of  which  one  was  subjected  to  the  experiment  with  the  needles  and 
the  other  with  the  lancets,  sustained  them  equally  well.  My  next  wish  was  to  know 
how  much  time  elapsed  before  the  beginning  of  the  fractures;  and  by  repeated 
experiments  on  turkeys  I  found  that  these  sharp  bodies  begin  to  be  broken,  and  lose 
their  shape,  in  two  hours.  This,  at  least,  happened  in  two  individuals  of  the  species : 
in  one,  four  of  the  lancets,  and  in  the  other,  three  of  the  needles,  were  broken 
within  that  apace ;  the  others  were  blunted,  but  continued  fixed  in  the  balls." 

14 


314  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  He  that  has  humanity,  forewam'd,  will  tread  aside,  and  let 
the  reptile  live." — COWPER. 


1000.  Why  do  birds  moult,  or  change  their  feathers, 
periodically  ? 

The  moulting  of  birds  is  a  process  analogous  to  the  nutrition, 
expenditure,  and  decay,  which  occurs  in  all  animal  bodies.  When 
an  atom,  or  it  may  be  an  organ,  has  fulfilled  its  functions,  it  dies  ; 
and  when  completely  dead,  it  separates  and  falls,  because  a  dead 
substance  cannot  co-exist  with  a  living. 

Moulting  is  nothing  else  but  this  natural  death  of  some 
part  of  the  bird,  in  consequence  of  the  development  of  other 
interior  parts,  which  are  being  matured  to  carry  on  the 
functions  of  the  parts  undergoing  decay. 

1001.  "We  find  the  germs  of  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruits,  in  vegetables,  and  the  hairs, 
feathers,  scales,  horns,  epidermis,  &c.,  in  animals  increasing  and  developing  them 
selves  in  spring,  to  flourish  in  succession,  at  least  for  the  duration  of  the  summer. 
But  at  the  approach  of  the  autumnal  equinox,  plants  and  animals,  being  more  or 
less  exhausted  by  the  vast  expenditure  of  their  vital  forces  in  the  great  work  of 
reproduction,  and  also  by  the  increased  energy  with  which  those  vital  forces  acted 
in  proportion  to  the  surface,  their  external  functions  begin  to  be  enfeebled,  and  by 
so  much  the  more  as  the  heat  of  the  sun  diminishes.  Then  these  external  partsf 
these  vernal  productions,  cease  to  receive  aliment  through  the  body  :  they  have, 
besides,  arrived  at  the  full  term  of  their  augmentation,  and  can  admit  of  no  further 
nutriment.  They  dry  up,  wither,  are  detached,  and  fall.  Thus  is  produced,  sooner 
or-  later,  the  fall  of  flowers,  leaves,  and  fruits,  and  the  change  of  hairs,  feathers, 
horns,  epidermis,  scales,  &c. 


CLASS    III— EEPTILIA. 

ORDER  I.— CHELONIA. 

1002.  Why  is  the  first  order  of  reptiles  called  chelonia? 

From  a  Greek  word  meaning  a  tortoise  ;  the  order  including  the 
various  species  of  tortoise  and  turtle.  They  have  horny  cases,  are 
destitute  of  teeth,  have  thick  fleshy  tongues,  well  developed  eyes, 
and  their  limbs  differ  from  an  elephantine  club  foot,  to  feet 
divided  and  webbed. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  315 


"  A  tortoi&r,  introduced  here  (Lambeth  Palace)  in  1633,  lived 
till  the  year  1753,  and  possibly  might  have  continued  much 
longer,  had  it  not  been  for  the  carelessness  of  the  gardener." 

PENNANT. 

1003.  Why  arc  reptiles  so  called  ? 

The  term  is  derived  from  a  Latin  word  rcpo,  I  creep  ;  since  the 
imperfection  of  the  legs  and  feet  in  some  cases,  and  the  total 
absence  of  these  members  in  others,  necessarily  entail  a  creeping 
movement  to  enable  the  animal  to  move  along  the  ground. 

1004.  Why  are  turtles  and  tortoises  covered  with  hard  external 
shells? 

Because  they  are  destitute  of  bony  skeletons  within,  and  the  horny 
covering  is  made  to  answer  all  the  purposes  of  the  usual  osseous 
structure. 

But,  besides  this,  they  are  defenceless  animals,  except  so  far  as 
the  shell  affords  a  retreat  to  the  head,  legs,  and  tail,  which  are 
withdrawn  within  the  shell  upon  the  occurrence  of  any  danger. 

1005.  It  may  appear  at  first  sight  that  there  is  a  great  affinity  between  the 
armour,  or  rather  box,  in  which  the  tortoise  is  enclosed,  and  the  coat  of  mail  with 
which  many  quadrupeds  are  covered,  as,  for  instance,  the  armadillo  (416).  But 
there  is  this  important  difference :  the  coat  of  mail  in  the  latter  quadruped  is  a 
simple  horny  addition  to  the  skin  itself,  resting  upon,  and  supported  by,  processes 
of  the  skeleton  ;  whereas  the  osseous  shell  of  the  tortoise  is  part  and  parcel  of  the 
skeleton  itself,  which  is  so  modified  as  to  protect  the  internal  organs,  enclosing  them 
as  in  a  casket,  which  is  covered  either  with  horny  plates  variously  arranged, 
or  with  a  tough  leathery  skin.* 

1006.  Why  do  the  cheeks  of  tortoises  and  turtles  appear  to  be 
frequently  distended  ? 

Because  they  swallow  air  instead  of  breaking  it  by  the  ordinary 
process.  The  jaws  being  firmly  closed,  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  is 
enlarged  by  the  drawing  down  of  the  root  of  the  tongue  ;  and  into 
the  vacuum  thus  formed  the  air  rushes  through  the  nostiils.  The 
free  part  of  the  tongue  is  then  applied  to  the  posterior  openings  of 
the  nostrils,  so  as  to  stop  them  ;  the  gullet  is  also  closed,  the  root 

the  tongue  is  elevated,  the  broad  muscles  of  the  throat  contract, 

•  Knight's  "  Museum  of  Animated  Nature." 


o!6  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


A  lizard's  body  lean  and  long, 

A  fish's  head,  a  serpent's  tongue." — MERRICK. 


and  the  air  is  forced  down  the  windpipe  into  the  lungs,  which 
become  filled  by  a  repetition  of  the  process. 

1007.   Why  have    tortoises  and   turtles  no   teeth  ? 

Because,  for  cropping  the  tender  vegetation  upon  which  they 
live,  teeth  are  less  adapted  than  the  serrated  horny  coverings  with 
which  they  are  provided,  and  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  crop 
and  mince  the  vegetable  aliment  upon  which  they  subsist. 


ORDEIl  II.-SAURIA. 

1008.  Why  is  the  second  order  of  reptiles  denominated  sauria  ? 

From  a  Greek  word  meaning  a  lizard.  The  mouths  of  these 
animals  are  always  armed  with  teeth,  and  the  toes  are  generally 
furnished  with  claws.  They  have  all  a  tail  more  or  less  long,  and 
generally  very  thick  at  the  base. 

1009.  Wliy  does  the  crocodile,  which  devours  birds,  beasts,  and 
even  human  beings,  allow  one  species  of  bird,  the  zic-zac,  to  be  on 
familiar  terms  icith  him  ? 

It  is  said  that  when  the  crocodile  comes  on  shore,  he  opens  his 

jaws,  and  this  bird  enters 
and  swallows  the  leeches 
which  are  found  about  the 
animal's  jaws  and  teeth,  and 
which  have  collected  dere 
owing  to  the  creature  being 
for  so  long  a  time  in  ths 
water ;  the  relief  afforded 
by  having  the  leeches  with 
drawn,  induces  the  croco 
dile  not  only  to  tolerate  the 
advances  of  the  bird,  but  to  encourage  them. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  317 


An  alligator  stuffed,  and  other  skins  of  ill-shap'd  fi?hes." 

SlIAKSPERK. 


1010.  This  is  a  disputed  point  in  natural  history,  and  is  doubted  simply  on  account 
of  its  apparent  improbability,  rather  than   from   any  evidence   which  has  been 
adduced  to  the  contrary.    The  following  anecdote,  however,  related  by  Mr.  Curzon, 
goes  far  to  confirm  this  seemingly  incredible  account :— "  I  had  always,"  says  Mr. 
Curzon,  "  a  strong  predilection  for  crocodile  shooting,  and  had  destroyed  several  of 
these  dragons  of  the  water.     On  one  occasion,  I  saw  a  long  way  off  a  large  one, 
twelve  or  fifteen  feet  long,  lying  asleep  under  a  perpendicular  bank,  about  ten  feet 
h-igh  on  the  margin  of  the  river.     I  stopped  the  boat  at  some  distance  ;  and,  noting 
the  place  as  well  as  I  could,  I  took  a  circuit  inland,  and  came  down  cautiously  to 
the  top  of  the  bank,  whence,  with  a  heavy  rifle,  I  made  sure  of  my  game.      I 
nad  already  cut  off  his  head  in  my  imagination,  and  was  considering  whether  it 
should  be  stuffed  with  its  mouth  open  or  shut.     I  peeped  over  the  bank  :  there  he 
was  within  ten  feet  of  the  sight  of  the  rifle.     I  was  on  the  point  of  firing  at  his  eye, 
when  I  observed  that  he  was  attended  by  a  bird  called  the  zic-zac.    It  is  of  the 
plover  species,  of  a  greyish  colour,  and  about  the  size  of  a  small  pigeon."    The 
remainder  of  the  narrative  corroborates  the  fact. 

1011.  Why  do  both  jaws  of  the  crocodile  move? 

Because  its  habits  of  life  render  it  necessary  to  be  able  to  seize 
its  prey  with  great  rapidity — the  prey  often  lying  on  the  surface  of 
the  water.  The  power  of  moving  both  jaws  facilitates  this  kind 
of  seizure,  by  bringing  the  level  of  the  water  surface  instantly 
and  equally  within  the  action  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws. 

1012.  Why    is    the    alligator    so   catted? 

Either  from  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  lagarto,  meaning  a 
lizard,  or  from  the  Latin  lacertus,  the  arm,  in  reference  to  the 
arm-like  appearance  of  the  legs. 

1013.  Wliy    are   the   monitor   lizards   so    catted? 

It  is  said  that  when  the  larger  reptiles  approach  them  they 
utter  a  cry  of  alarm,  which  gives  warning  to  other  creatures  of 
the  dangerous  approach  of  the  crocodile  and  the  alligator. 

1014.  W7ty     has      the    chameleon      the    power     of     changing 
its    colour  ? 

This  faculty  has  been  attributed  to  the  protective  instinct  of  the 
animal,  by  which  it  seeks  to  render  itself  less  observable  by 
enemies,  by  assuming  the  colour  of  the  bed  upon  which  it  lies. 


318  THE    REASON    WH  Y  : 


"Wak'd  by  his  warming  ray,  the  reptile  young 
Come  win.2-'d  abroad  ;   by  the  Ii4ht  air  upborne, 
Lighter,  and  full  of  soul." — THCMSOX. 


1015.  The  means  by  which  this  change  of  colour  is  accomplished  is  a  matter 
of  doubt.  Some  naturalists  attribute  it  to  tho  distension  of  the  chameleon's 
body  occasioning  differences  in  the  cuticle,  afftcting  its  reflect  ice  properties; 
others,  that  the  animal  has  the  power  of  throwing  into  its  skin  a  different 
pigment,  or  colouring  matter,  from  the  blood ;  others,  to  nervous  or  galvanic  action. 
The  chameleon,  though  long  an  object  of  interest  and  study,  still  presents  many 
remarkable  characteristics  demanding  explanation. 

It  appears,  from  the  observations  of  Dr.  \Veisser..born,  who  had  a  chameleon  for 
some  time  in  his  possession,  that  the  nervous  currents  in  one  half  of  the  animal  may 
go  on  independently  of  those  in  the  other,  and  that  the  animal  has  two  lateral 
centres  of  perception,  sensation,  and  motion,  besides  the  common  one  in  which 
must  reside  the  faculty  of  concentration.  "  Notwithstanding  the  strictly  symmetrical 
structure  of  the  chameleon,  as  to  its  two  halves,  the  eyes  move  independently  of 
each  other,  and  convey  different  impressions  to  their  centres  of  perception. 
The  consequence  is,  that  when  the  animal  is  agitated,  its  movements  appear  like 
those  of  two  animals  glued  together.  Each  half  wishes  to  move  its  own  way,  and 
there  is  no  concordance  of  action.  The  chameleon,  therefore,  is  not  able  to  swim 
like  other  animals  ;  it  is  so  frightened  if  put  into  water,  the  faculty  of  con 
centration  is  lost,  and  it  tumbles  about  as  if  in  a  state  of  intoxication.  On 
the  other  hand,  when  the  creature  is  undisturbed,  the  eye  which  receives 
the  strongest  impression  propagates  it  to  the  common  centre,  and  prevails 
upon  the  other  eye  to  follow  that  impression,  and  direct  itself  to  the  same 
object  The  chameleon,  moreover,  may  be  asleep  on  one  side,  and  awake  on  the 
other.  When  cautiously  approaching  my  specimen  at  night  with  a  candle,  so  as 
not  to  awaken  the  wh  le  animal  by  the  shaking  of  the  room,  the  eye  turned  towards 
the  flame  would  open  and  begin  to  move,  and  the  corresponding  side  to  change 
colour,  whereas  the  other  side  would  remain  for  several  seconds  longer  in  its  torpid 
and  changeable  state,  with  its  eye  shut." 

1016.   Why   has    the  agama   the  power    of  inflating  its   body 
with  air  ? 

The  use  of  this  peculiar  endowment 
is  not  clearly  r  nderstood,  though  it  is 
believed  that  the  animal  has  the 
power  of  bri-  tying  down  insects,  by 
directing  upon  them  a  smart  current 
of  air?  Assuming  this  to  be  the 
case,  the  function  is  analogous  to  that 
possessed  by  certain  fishes,  in  the 
chaetodon  family,  of  bringing  down 
insects  by  emitting  jets  of  water. 


NATUKAL    HISTORY.  319 


'  Lo  !   the  preen  serpent,  from  his  dark  abode, 
Which  e'en  Imagination  fears  to  tread, 
At  noon  forth  issuiner,  gathers  up  his  train 
In  orbs  immense."— THOMSON. 


ORDER  III.— OPIIIDlA. 

1017.  Why  is  the  third  order  of  reptiles  termed  ophidia  ? 

From  the  Greek  ophis, 
meaning  a  serpent  or  snake 
The  order  includes  all  the 
serpents  and  snakes,  whatever 
may  be  their  nature  or  modes 
of  life.  They  are  the  only 
vertebrated  animals  which 
have  the  power  of  infusing 
a  poison  into  wounds, 
though  many  of  them  are 
destitute  of  this  power. 

1018.  Why   are   serpents   unprovided   with  fed  ? 

One  reason,  at  least,  may  be  found  for  this  deprivation  in  the 
fact  that,  as  they  are  adapted  for  fulfilling  certain  ends  within 
particular  geographical  limits,  they  are  confined  to  those  limits  by 
the  absence  of  locomotive  organs  ? 

If  creatures  like  the  boa  and  the  rattle-snake  could  spread 
themselves  from  the  hot  to  the  temperate  latitudes,  and  diffuse 
themselves  generally  through  these,  they  would  prove  serious 
pests,  and  formidable  enemies  to  a  great  number  of 
useful  races. 

10 1£.  How  are  serpents  enabled  to  move  along  the  ground- 
without  feet  or  legs  ? 

Locomotion  is  effected  by  the  contractile  force  of  the  muscles, 
alternately  drawing  up  and  extending  the  body,  combined  with 
the  adhesion  of  the  tegumentary  covering  with  the  ground. 

The  animal  attaching  to  the  ground  a  point  near  its  head 
contracts  its  body,  or  bends  it  int<>  an  arch,  bringing  forward  the 


320  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


Snakes  breathe  their  amorous  sighs  in  hisses. 
This  dialect  no  creature  misses." — SHERBPRNZ. 


hinder  part,  some  point  of  which  is  then  attached  to  the  ground, 
liberating  at  the  same  time  the  fore  part. 

The  posterior  point  of  attachment  then  becoming  a  fixed  point, 
the  animal  throws  forward  its  length  by  the  action  of  its  extensor 
muscles,  after  which  it  again  attaches  a  point  in  the  foremost  pars 
of  its  body  to  the  ground,  and  repeats  the  same  process. 

1020.  Why  do  serpents   let  themselves  fall  from   trees  without 
sustaining  injury  ? 

Because  their  peculiar  form,  and  the  elasticity  of  their  parts, 
prevent  concussion  from  such  falls.  On  reaching  the  ground, 
the  shock  they  sustain,  instead  of  proving  hurtful,  impels  them 
forward,  and  serves  as  a  stimulus  to  their  subsequent 
movements. 

1021.  How    does    the   snake    throw   its    whole   body  from    the 
ground  in  a  kind  of  leap  ? 

This  is  performed  by  placing  the  body  upon  the  ground  in 
form  of  a  twisted  spiral,  the  folds  of  the  anterior  part  forming 
the  centre  of  the  figure  ;  then  suddenly  extending  itself  in  the 
manner  of  a  spring,  it  throws  itself  to  a  distance. 

1022.  This  movement  may  sometimes  be  seen  in  very  hot  weather  by  the  banks  of 
the  stream,  where  snakes  often  lie  basking  with  their  bodies  coiled  in  the  mannei 
just  described,  the  neck  and  head  being  directed  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference 
above  the  folds.  This  position  seems  to  be  preferred  to  any  other  by  the  snake  while 
reposing ;  and  it  is  one  from  which  the  animal  is  enabled  to  perform  the  most  rapid 
movement  upon  a  sudden  surprise ;  for,  in  a  wood,  from  this  position  they  will  leap 
by  an  instantaneous  effort  into  the  brushwood,  and  thus  elule  our  most  energetic 
efforts  to  secure  them,  or  even  to  get  sight  of  them ;  but  by  the  side  of  a  stream  this 
movement  may  be  better  seen,  for  on  a  sudden  approach  they  will  leap  from  the 
bank  into  the  midst  of  the  stream,  swim  to  the  opposite  side,  ascend  the  bank,  and 
secrete  themselves. 

1023.  Why  is  the  rattlesnake  provided  with  a  rattle  at  the 
extremity  of  its  tail  ? 

The  use  of  this  curious  apparatus  is  unknown,  though  so 
obvious  a  contrivance  cannot  be  without  its  specific  uses. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  321 


Where  at  each  step  the  stranger  fears  to  wake 

The  rattling  terrors  of  the  vengeful  snake.'" — GOLDSMITH. 


It  has  been  alleged  that  it  is  a  signal  of  warning  to  keep 
away  animals  that  might  hear  it,  from  the  deadly  venom  of 
the  snake.  But  it  is  altogether  opposed  to  the  economy  of  nature 
to  endow  an  animal  with  means  to  scare  away  the  prey  upon 
which  it  must  subsist.  It  is  not  unlikely  that,  as  the  snake  does 
not  climb  trees,  nor  move  about  with  the  graceful  evolutions  of 
other  tribes,  but  glides  along  the  ground  in  low  and  secret  places, 
the  rattle  is  used  as  a  call  to  members  of  its  own 


1024.  Why  have  serpents  the  power  of  fascination  ? 

Being  deficient  in  organs  of  locomotion,  the  power  of  fascination 
has  probably  been  bestowed  upon  them  as  a  compensatory  endow 
ment.  Otherwise,  what  chance  would  there  be  of  a  snake  bringing 
down  a  bird,  or  pursuing  successfully  a  swift  rabbit  ? 

1025.  Why   are    the    Indian  snake-catchers  enabled   to  charm, 


It  seems  to  be  well-established  by  observation  that  certain  kinds 
of  serpents  are  exceedingly  impressible  by  musical  sounds.  A 
similar  fact  has  been  noted  with  respect  to  seals,  rats,  mice,  and 
other  animals.  But  serpents  appear  to  be  impressible  in  a  higher 
degree,  and  the  Indians,  who  study  their  habits,  learn  the  exact 
notes  by  which  the  serpents  are  most  affected,  and  acquire  the 
power  of  what  has  been  termed  "  charming  them." 

ORDER  IV.— AMPHIBIA.    " 

1026.  Why  is  the  fourth  order  of  reptiles  called  amphibia  1 

From  two  Greek  words,  meaning  both  and  life.  Amphibials  are 
animals  formed  to  live  on  land,  and  to  be  also  capable  of  living 
for  a  long  time  under  water.  Their  hearts  have  but  one  ventricle  , 
their  blood  is  red  and  cold  ;  and  they  have  such  a  command  of  the 
lungs,  as  for  a  considerable  time  to  suspend  respiration.  These 
peculiarities,  which  characterise  the  amphibia  in  particular,  apply 
also  generally  to  all  the  order  of  reptiles. 

14* 


322 


THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  Onely  these  marishes  and  myrie  bogs, 

In  which  the  fearefull  ewftes  do  build  their  bowres, 
Yield  me  an  hostry  'mongst  the  croaking  froys." — SPENSER. 


1027.  Why  when  the  frog  is  breathing  does  it  keep  its 
mouth  firmly  shut,  and  also  continually  raising  and  lowering 
the  skin  between  the  bones  of  the  under  jaw  ? 

Because,  owing  to  its  peculiar 
structure,  it  cannot  breathe  with 
the  mouth  open ;  and  if  it 
were  forcibly  kept  open,  the 
animal  would  die  of  suffo 
cation. 

1028.  The  explanation  of  this  ap 
parent  anomaly  is  as  follows  : — The 
frog  receives  the  air  which  is  to  be 
conveyed  to  the  lungs  through  the 
nostrils,  but  there  is  no  vacuum  or 
cavity  formed  by  the  expansion  of 
the  thorax,  so  that  the  mere  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere  following  the  expansion,  does  not,  in  this  instance, 
inflate  the  lungs.  An  effort  is  required  after  the  air  is  taken  ii,to  the 
body,  and  that  is  performed  chiefly  by  the  tongue.  The  depression  of  the  skin  ol 
the  lower  jaw  lasts  much  longer  than  the  elevation,  because  there  is  a  double 
operation  to  be  performed— the  expulsion  of  the  air  already  in  the  lungs, 
and  the  re-admission  of  fresh  air  into  the  body.  When  that  skin  first  descends, 
there  is  a  contractile  action  of  the  abdomen,  by  which  the  air  in  the  lungs  is 
driven  out ;  and  when  that  is  all  expired,  the  abdomen  returns  to  its  natural  state  ; 
but  being  without  bones  it  cannot  form  a  vacuum,  and  thus  the  lungs  could  not  be 
inflated  but  by  some  other  action  capable  of  overcoming  the  resistance  of 
their  cells. 


1029.  How  are  the  showers  of  frogs,  ivhich  are  often  reported 
as  taking  place,  accounted  for  ? 

The  explanation  of  this  apparent  phenomenon  is  as  follows  :  It 
is  generally  about  the  month  of  August,  and  often  after  a  season 
of  drought,  that  these  hordes  of  frogs  make  their  appearance  ;  the 
animals  have  been  hatched,  and  quitted  their  tadpole  state,  and 
native  pond.  Finding  the  fields  hot  and  parched,  they  seek  the 
coolest  and  dampest  places,  and  conceal  themselves  undej 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  323 


"  I  had  rather  be  a  toad,  and  live  upon  the  vapour  of  a 
dungeon,  than  keep  a  corner  in  the  thing  I  love  for  others, 
uses." — SHAKSPKUE. 

clods  and  stones,  where,  on  account  of  their  dusky  colour,  they 
escape  notice.  When  the  rain  descends,  they  come  forth  in 
hundreds  from  their  hiding  places,  and  hence  are  supposed  to 
have  fallen  to  earth  in  a  shoiver. 

1030.  How  is  the  bull-frog  enabled  to  make  the  bellowing  noise 
from  which  it  takes  its  no  me  ? 

This  sound  is  produced  by  certain  portions  of  the  larynx  of 
the  animal  being  convex  externally  and  concave  internally,  so 
that  when  the  entrance  to  the  larynx  is  closed,  they  form  a 
dome  over  the  windpipe,  which,  from  its  vibratory  properties,  has 
been  compared  to  a  kettle-drum. 

1130.  How  is  the  croaking  of  the  frog  produced? 

This  peculiar  sound,  which  is  supposed  to  be  expressive  of 
pleasure,  is  produced  by  means  of  the  air  which  it  forces  into  the 
globular  vocal  sacs,  which  are  situated  near  the  corners  of  the 
mouth,  and  causes  to  vibrate  in  them.  The  female  being  without 
these  organs,  produces  only  a  slight  noise. 

1032.  Why  are  frogs  frequently  found  dead  in  dusty  roads  ? 

Because  their  skin  co-operates  with  their  feeble  lungs  in 
the  aeration  of  the  blood.  This  internal  respiration  can  only  take 
place  when  the  skin  is  bedewed  with  moisture.  For  this  purpose 
the  frog  is  endowed  with  certain  glands  that  secrete  a  fluid  to 
moisten  the  skin.  In  dusty  roads  this  fluid  becomes  clogged 
with  dust,  and  the  respiration  of  the  skin  being  stopped,  the 
animal  dies. 

1033.  WHiy  are  toads   useful   in  greenhouses  and  other  horti 
cultural  buildings  ? 

Because  they  destroy  ants ;  an  1  devour  earwigs,  caterpillars, 
small  bedlfs,  slugs,  and  all  insects  which  chance  to  fall  in 
their  way. 


324  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


Thou  cold-blooded  slave, 

Hast  thou  not  spoke  like  thunder  on  my  side? 

Beene  sworne  my  soldier,        *        * 

And  dost  thou  now  fall  over  to  my  foes  ?  " — SHAKSPERK. 


1034.  Why  are  toads  enabled  to  live  embedded  in  rock 
or  stone  ? 

Because  their  skins  are  capable  of  effecting  the  necessary  change* 
in  the  system  when  the  function  of  the  lungs  is  altogether  ar 
rested  ;  and,  requiring  an  inconceivably  small  portion  of  air,  they 
are  enabled  to  live  by  the  supply  which  penetrates  the  pores  of 
the  material  in  which  they  are  embedded. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

1035.  Wliy  have  most  reptiles  a  hind  of  moveable  lid  at   the 
iperture  of  their  nasal  organs  ? 

Reptiles  are  thus  provided,  so  that  when  they  are  under  water, 
the  organ  of  smell  may  be  exercised  or  protected  as  circumstances 
may  require.  The  proper  vehicle  of  the  impression  of  smell  in 
reptiles  is  air  ;  and  this  they  draw  through  their  nasal  cavities 
durirg  inspiration,  effecting  the  operation  by  depressing  their 
lingual  bone,  and  thus  enlarging  the  cavity  of  the  mouth. 

1036.  WTiy  can  reptiles  abstain  for  an  extraordinary  length 
of  time  from  food  and  drink  ? 

Because  the  languid  circulation  of  their  blood,  their  rare  secre 
tions,  low  temperature,  and  scaly  and  impermeable  envelope, 
render  their  losses  by  evaporation  from  the  skin  very  incon 
siderable  ;  so  that  the  frequent  supplies  which  are  wanted  in 
other  animals,  to  compensate  for  the  incessant  waste,  are  not 
required  for  reptiles. 

1037.  Why   are   reptiles   termed  cold-blooded? 

Because  they  do  not  produce  enough  heat  to  have  a  temperature 
sensibly  higher  than  that  of  the  surrounding  air. 

The  whole  of  their  body  is  heated  qr  cooled  at  the  same  time  ai 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


"  Forthwith  the  sounds  and  seas,  each  creek  and  bay, 
"With  frie  innumerable  swarme,  and  shoales 
Of  fish,  that  with  their  finnes  and  shining  scales 
Glide  under  the  greene  wave." — MII.TOX. 

the  surrounding  medium  ;  and  the  changes  of  temperature  "which 
they  thus  experience  have  great  influence  upon  all  their 
functions. 

A  warmth  of  from  105°  to  120°  is  soon  fatal  to  most  of  these 
animals  ;  and  cold  tends  to  depress  all  their  natural  operations. 
In  winter,  most  of  them  could  no  longer  digest  the  food  introduced 
into  their  stomach,  and  do  not  take  nourishment.  Their  respiration 
also  diminishes  in  a  most  remarkable  manner.  Thus,  during  the 
cold  season,  the  action  of  the  air  on  the  skin  is  sufficient  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  life  of  the  frog  ;  and  the  lungs  of  one 
of  these  animals  may  be  removed  without  producing  asphyxia  ; 
whilst  in  summer  they  have  need  not  only  of  the  pulmonary 
respiration,  but  also  of  their  cutaneous  ;  and  death  soon  occurs 
when  the  air  does  not  act  on  the  skin,  or  is  excluded  from 
the  lungs. 

CLASS    IV.— PISCES. 

ORDER  I.— LEPTOCARDIA.* 

1038.   Why  is  the  first  order  of  fishes  called  leptocardia  1 

From  two  Greek  words  signifying  small  and  heart,  with  reference 
to  the  rudimentary  formation  of  the  heart,  which,  indeed,  is  said 
to  be  absent,  and  to  consist  entirely  of  the  contractile  power 
of  the  arteries. 

1039.  This  order  includes  only  a  single  small  fish,  which  rarely  attains  a  length 
of  two  inches,  and  which  presents  so  many  remarkable  characters  that  its  position 
in  classification  has  been  much  disputed.  This  is  the  Amphioxus  lanceolatus,  a 
little,  slender,  transparent  creature,  found  on  sandy  coasts  in  various  parts  of  the 
world.  Its  body  is  of  the  lamprey  form,  with  a  narrow  membranous  border . 
The  vertebral  column  is  represented  by  a  gelatinous  cord,  wlrch  supports  the  axis 
of  the  nervous  system;  the  latter  terminates  anteriorly  by  a  rounded  extremitj, 
without  any  signs  of  a  brain.  The  head  bears  a  pair  of  eyes,  which  are  connected 
with  the  end  of  the  nervous  axis  by  short  filaments,  and  there  is  an  apparent 

•  The  classification  here  pursued  combines  the  systems  of  Cuvier  and  Agassiz, 
as  blended  by  M  tiller. 


326  THE    REASON    WHY  : 


"  Lie  there,  Lycaon  :    let  the  fish  surround 
Thy  bloated  corpse,  and  suck  thy  gory  wound."— POPE. 


rudiment  of  an  olfactory  organ.  The  mouth  is  at  the  front  of  the  head,  -where  it 
forms  an  oval  opening  without  jaws,  but  surrounded  by  a  number  of  cartilaginous 
points  ;  the  oval  cavity  leads  into  a  large  branchial  sac.  By  the  action  of  cilia, 
with  which  these  cavities  are  lined,  currents  are  produced  in  water,  the  water 
passing  off  through  numerous  slits  in  its  walls  into  the  general  cavity  of  the  body, 
•whence  it  escapes  by  an  opening  in  the  ventral  surface.* 

ORDER  II.— CYCLOSTOMATA. 

1040.   Why  is  the  second  order  of  fakes  called  cyclostomata  ? 

From  two  Greek  words  meaning  a  circle  and  a  mouth,  in 
reference  to  the  circular  mouth  which  distinguishes  the  members 
of  the  order. 

1041.  They  are  of  an  elongated,  cylindric,  and  worm-like  form;  the  skin  is 
tough  and  destitute  of  scales ;  the  pectoral  and  ventral  fins  are  wanting ;  the 
skeleton  is  cartilaginous ;  breathing  orifices,  little  sacs  that  open  exteriorly  by 
separate  vents  ;  heart  muscular,  composed  of  two  chambers. 

1042.   Why  has  the    lamprey  a  circular,  cartilaginous  mouth  ? 

Because  it  lives  by  suction,  some  species  living  upon  insects  and 

worms :  others  upon  the 
juices  of  the  larger  fishes. 
One  species,  the  hag,  con 
trives  to  enter  the  mouths 

\  I  /^*^5£i^HnHK^^^     of  tislies>  and  extracts  tneir 

s'.ibst,-ince  by  sucking.    Fish 

\W&&^^sBiB|  tha    have  been  hooked  on 

litu  s  and  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  water  for  some  time  afterwards,  have  been  attacked  by 
these  creatures,  and  when  drawn  up  have  been  found  to  consist 
of  little  more  than  empty  skin. 

1043.  Formerly  the  lamprey  was  a  fi*h  of  considerable  importance.  It  was 
taken  in  great  quantities  in  the  Thames,  and  sold  to  the  Dutch  as  bait  for  turbot, 
cod,  and  other  fisheries.  Four  hundred  thousand  have  been  sold  in  one  season  fo* 

•  Orr's  'T'rcle  of  the  Sciences." 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


Let  riches  never  breede  a  lofty  minde, 

Let  nature's  giltes  make  no  man  oner  blinde, 

For  these  are  all  but  lladlers  full  of  winde." — TURBERVILLK. 


this  purpose,  at  the  rate  of  forty  shillings  a  thousand.  From  five  pounds  to  eight 
pounds  a  thousand  has  been  given  ;  but  a  comparative  scarcity  of  late  years,  and 
consequent  increase  in  price,  have  obliged  the  line  fishermen  to  adopt  other 
substances  for  bait.* 

ORDER  III.— TELEOSTIA. 

1044.   IVliy  is  the  third  order  of  fishes  named  teleostia  '/ 

From    two    Greek   words    signifying    perfect,    and     bones,  in 
reference  to  the  perfect  bony  skeletons  which  they  possess. 


1045.  In  fishes  of  this  order  the  skill1,  is 
always  of  a  very  complicated  structure, 
composed  of  numerous  bones ;  the  gills 
are  supported  upon  free  bony  arches, 
and  the  water  passes  away  from  them 
by  a  single  aperture,  protected  by  bony 
gill  covers,  The  mouth  is  always 
formed  by  a  pair  of  jaws,  and  usually 
armed  with  teeth. 


The  ORDER  is  again  divided  into  six  Sub-orders:  1.  Physoto- 
mata  ;  2.  Anacanthina ;  3.  Pharyngognatha ;  4.  Acanthoptera ; 
5.  Lopobranchia ;  6.  Plectognatha 

Sub-order  I. — Physotomata. 
1046.   Wliy  is  the  sub-order  physotomata  so  named? 

From  the  Greek  phuaso,  to  blow,  or  inflate,  in  allusion  to  the 
possession  of  an  air-bladder,  connected  with  the  pharynx  by  a 
duct,  which  only  occurs  in  these  fishes,  of  all  the  teleostia. 

1047.  The  fishes  belonging  to  this  group  are  usually  furnished  with  a  complete 
series  of  fins,  -which  are  always  composed  entirely  of  soft  rays,  with  the  exception 

•  Yarrell's  "  History  of  British  Fishes." 


328  THE    EEASON   WHY  .* 


"  Genius,  piercing  as  the  electric  flame, 
When  waked  in  one,  in  others  wakes  the  same." — SCOTT. 


of  the  first  ray  in  the  dorsal,  anal,  and  pectoral  fins,  which  are  sometimes  spir.ous. 
The  ventral  fins  are  sometimes  wanting' ;  when  present,  they  are  always  abdominal 
in  position.  The  skin  is  sometimes  naked,  at  other  times  more  or  less  covered  with 
oony  plates ;  in  most  cases,  however,  it  is  thickly  clad  with  scales.  The  air 
bladder  is  connected  with  the  pharynx  by  a  sort  of  duct.  The  sub-order  includes 
most  of  the  important  fishes  that  are  sought  for  as  food  by  man,  and  one  species 
which  possesses  electrical  powers. 

1048.  JHiy  has  the  gymnotus  the  power  of  communicating 
electric  shocks  ? 

For  (he  purpose  of  defending  itself  from  enemies,  and  also  to 
benumb  its  prey,  which  is  generally  swifter  in  motion  than  the 
eel,  until  the  latter  can  overtake  it. 

1049.  That  these  are  the  reasons  why  this  animal  is  endowed  with  this  wonderful 
power  there  can  be  no  doubt,  since  the  uses  made  of  the  electric  force  by  the  eel 
have  been  well  ascertained. 

The  electric  eel  is  not  only  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  of  fishes,  but  it  is  one  of 
the  most  wonderful  productions  of  living  nature.  And  yet  it  is  no  more  wonderful 
than  the  serpent  which  fascinates  it  prey;  than  the  bird  which  baits  with  insects 
the  branches  of  shrubs,  in  order  to  attract  small  birds  thither  ;  than  the  fish  which 
emits  jets  of  water  to  knock  down  flies  ;  or  ttie  spider  which  constructs  a  beautiful 
snare,  and  waits  silently  and  motionless  the  entrapment  of  its  victim. 

These  various  means  to  the  same  end,  with  which  different  animals  are  endowed, 
illustrate  the  boundless  resources  of  the  Creative  Wisdom. 

The  apparatus  in  which  the  electric  power  is  lodged  is  a  very  singular  one, 
consisting  of  four  organs,  which  are  placed  longitudinally  in  the  tail  of  the  fish. 
The  organic  part  of  this  singular  apparatus  consists  of  a  countless  assemblage  of 
cells,  which  have  some  analogy  to  the  divisions  of  a  galvanic  battery. 

The  nature  of  the  shock  transmitted  appears  to  be  galvanic  or  electrical.  Nearly 
the  same  substances  are  conductors  and  non-conductors  of  the  shock,  as  are 
conductors  and  non-conductors  of  common  electricity.  The  eel  may  with  perfect 
impunity  be  touched  with  a  glass  rod,  or  the  hand  wrapped  in  a  dry  silk  handker 
chief  ;  but  metals,  water,  and  almost  all  moist  bodies  conduct  it  readily.  If  the 
animal  is  touched  with  one  hand  only,  that  is,  if  it  is  touched  only  in  one  place,  no 
shock  is  felt ;  but  if  it  is  touched  in  two  places  considerably  apart  from  each  other, 
the  shock  is  very  violent 

TJie  manner  in  which  the  force  is  applied  is  as  follows  :— The  gymnotus  approaches 
as  nearly  as  possible  its  intended  prey;  the  latter  endeavour  to  escape,  when  the 
gymnotus  discharges  its  battery,  which  has  been  found  to  be  powerfully  effective  al 
a  distance  of  fifteen  fee'.  The  creature  taus  benumbed  is  incapable  of  any  further 
effort,  and  the  eel  swims  leisurely  towards  and  devours  it. 

The  degree  of  force  which  can  be  thus  exerted  is  considerable.     Horses  entering 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  329 


"  Barefoot  may  no  neighbour  wade 
In  thy  cool  streams,  wife  nor  maid, 
When  the  spawns  c-n  stones  do  lye, 
To  wash  their  hemp,  and  spoil  the  fry." 

BEAUMONT  AND  FLETCHER. 

jonds  where  electric  eels  abound  are  frequently  knocked  down  by  its  violence  ;  and 
the  Indians  of  South  America,  where  the  gymnotus  abounds,  are  frequently 
Irowned  while  bathing,  being  stunned  by  the  shock  from  these  animals. 

It  is  remarkable  that  in  tropical  lands  there  are  found  the  choicest  fruits,  the 
most  beautiful  flowers,  the  grandest  plumage,  the  richest  perfumes ;  •  and  there, 
too,  the  rattle-snake  has  the  deadliest  poison,  and  the  gymnotus  its  strange 
electrical  power.* 

1050.  Why  is   the   herring   so   called? 

From  the  German  hcer,  an  army,  with  reference  to  the  numbers 
in  which  they  move  from  place  to  place. 

1051.  Why  do  herrings  migrate  ? 

The  migrations  of  the  herring  are  analogous  to  those  of  certain 
birds.  Impelled  by  unfailing  instinct,  the  herring  leaves  the 
depths  of  our  surrounding  seas  to  deposit  its  spawn  in  the 
shallower  waters  of  the  coast,  there  to  be  vivified  by  the  genial 
influence  of  the  sun  ;  and  after  accomplishing  its  purpose,  it 
retires  to  the  remoter  deeps. 

1052.  The  herring  is  es?entially  a  northern  fish  ;  seldom  has  it  been  found  so  fai 
south  as  the  Bay  of  Biscfc/,  in  Europe,  or  the  coast  of  Carolina,  in  America.  Likt 
plants  that,  flourishing  in  certain  climates  only,  become  fewer  and  more  stunted 
the  nearer  they  approach  the  limits  of  their  zone,  herrings  decrease  in  number 
and  si/e  as  they  approach  their  assigned  southern  boundary — those  caught  on  the 
southern  shores  of  England  being  considerably  smaller  that  those  which  frequent 
the  coast  of  Norway.  Thus  it  is  that  about  the  month  of  July,  the  grand  array  of 
herrings  is  found  to  the  northward  of  the  Shetlands,  in  distinct  columns  five  and  six 
miles  long,  three  and  four  miles  broad.  Pressing  for  the  shallows,  they  drive  the 
sea  before  them  in  a  continuous  ripple.  Sometimes  they  sink  down  fathoms  deep 
for  a  few  minutes,  then  again  rising  to  the  surface,  sparkle  in  the  sun  like  a  prairie 
strewn  with  diamonds.  Nor  even  during  the  calm  summer  night  is  the  sceno  less 
brilliant,  from  the  intense  scintillations  of  phosphoric  light  exhibited  by  the  count 
less  myriads  of  moving  fish.  The  quantity  of  life  in  these  shoals  would  be  completely 
beyond  belief  if  we  did  not  recollect  that  36,000  eggs  have  been  counted  in  the 
spawn  of  one  herring. 

1053.   Why  do  herrings  swim,  in  shoals  ? 

Because,  like  migratory  birds  and  quadrupeds,  large  numbers  of 

*  Pennant. 


330  THE    REASON    WHY  ; 


"  The  scaly  herd,  a  numerous  throng, 
Beneath  her  silver  billows  glide  along, 
Whose  still  increasing  shoals  supply 
The  poor  man's  wants,  the  great  one's  luxury." — SOMERVILLE. 

them  are  acted  upon  by  the  same  necessity  at  the  same  time ;  they 
therefore  move  together  by  a  common  impulse,  to  fulfil  an 
uniform  end.  Herrings,  and  all  fishes  that  are  known  to  swim 
in  shoals,  are  solitary  except  when  the  necessity  for  spawning 
approaches,  and  then  the  prevailing  need  brings  them  together 
in  enormous  numbers. 

1054.  No  adequate  conception  can  be  formed  of  the  myriads  of  herrings  and 
pilchards  that  move  together  in  what  are  called  shoals,  which  often  extend  many 
wiles  in  length  and  breadth.     In  some  of  the  lochs,  or  arms  of  the  sea,  on  the  west 
coast  of  Scotland,  herrings  have  often  been  cast  ashore  by  storms  in  such  numbers 
that  they  have  been  used  as  manure  for  land. 

Upon  one  occasion,  the  bellman  of  Crail,  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
peninsula  of  Fife,  was  sent  round  with  the  bell  to  announce  that  any  one  who 
chose  to  go  to  the  shore  would  get  a  cart-load  of  live  herrings  for  a  shilling.  This 
passed  without  much  notice;  but,  by-and-bye,  the  bellman  again  went  round,  pro 
claiming  that  any  one  who  chose  might  go  and  obtain  a  cart-load  of  live  herrings 
for  nothing.  This  announcement,  of  course,  excited  some  speculation ;  but  it  was 
speedily  followed  by  a  third  one— that  any  one  who  would  be  kind  enough  to  go  to 
the  shore  of  Crail  would  get  a  shilling  for  taking  away  a  cart-load  of  herrings.  The 
explanation  was,  that  a  storm  which  was  then  prevailing  continued  to  drive  large 
skoals  of  herrings  upon  the  shore  ;  so  that,  when  left  by  the  ebb-tide,  they  lay  in 
countless  thousands  for  at  least  a  mile  and  a  half  or  two  miles  along  the  coast. 
The  reason  for  the  latter  announcement  was  a  fear  on  the  part  of  the  authorities  of 
Ci'ail,  that  such  a  quantity  of  animal  matter  remaining  to  putrify  on  the  beach 
would  taint  the  atmosphere,  and  cause  disease. 

1055.  Why  are  jew  herrings  and  pilchards  caught  in  the  cold 
months  ? 

Because  they  then  resort  to  deep  waters,  beyond  the  reach  of 
nets.  They  keep  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  where  they  feed  upon 
small  crustaceous  animals  and  a  minute  species  of  shrimp  not 
larger  than  a  flea. 

This  being  their  natural  food  and  mode  of  feeding,  it  is 
impossible  to  take  them  with  a  hook,  though  a  rare  instance 
of  a  pilchard  being  hooked  with  a  worm  is  upon  record. 

Pilchards  are,  however,  frequently  found  in  the  stomachs  of 
large  voracious  fishes,  caught  during  the  colder  months. 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  331 


"  Before  that,  a  plump  vintner 

Kneeling,  and  offering'  incense  to  his  deitie, 
Which  shall  be  only  this,  red  sprats  and  pilcbers." 

BEAUMONT  AND  FLKTCHEB. 

1056.  What  is   the,  difference    between    tlu   pilchard    and    tin 
herring  ? 

The  pilchard  is  a  different  species,  thicker  and  smaller  than  the 
herring  ;  the  scales  large,  while  those  of  the  herring  are  small.  The 
posterior  edge  of  the  dorsal  fin  is  nearly  over  the  centre  of  gravity, 
so  that  when  a  pilchard  is  held  by  this  fin,  the  head  rises,  and  the 
tail  droops  down,  which  is  the  reverse  of  what  happens  with 
the  herring. 

The  pilchard  is  a  more  southerly  and  more  local  fish  than  the 
herring,  being  found  chiefly  on  the  Cornish  coasts  ;  and  it  is  rare 
that  one  is  found  beyond  Dover,  or  even  in  the  narrow  part  of 
the  Channel. 

1057.  What  are  sprats  ? 

Sprats  are  a  distinct  species  offish,  though  of  the  herring  family, 
of  which  those  usually  sold  are  full  grown. 

1058.  Why    do    sprats    usually    appear    soon    after    herrings 
have  spawned  ? 

Because  sprats  approach  the  shore  for  the  like  purpose  of 
spawning,  their  season  being  a  little  later  than  the  herrings.  The 
resemblance  of  the  sprat  to  the  herring,  and  their  becoming 
abundant  soon  after  the  herring  season,  has  led  to  the  erroneous 
supposition  that  sprats  are  young  herrings. 

1059.  What  are  whitebait? 

They  are  a  distinct  species*  and  not,  as  generally  supposed, 
the  fry  of  a  larger  kind. 

1060.  About  the  end  of  March,  or  early  in  April,  whitebait  begin  to  make  their 
appearance  in  the  Thames,  and  are  then  small,  apparently  but  just  changed  from 
the  albuminous  state  of  very  young  fry.  In  September,  specimens  of  whitebait, 
tue  young  fish  of  the  year,  may  be  taken  as  long  as  four  or  five  inches  but  *hey 

*  Clapea   alba.     Yarrel. 


332  THE    REASON    WHY  ; 


'  The  lusty  salmon,  then,  from  Neptune's  wat'ry  realm, 
When  as  his  season  serves,  stemming  my  tideful  stream."— DRAYTON. 


are  even  then  mixed  with  others  of  very  small  size,  as  though  the  roe  had 
continued  to  be  deposited  throughout  the  summer.  In  their  habits  they  appear  to 
oe  similar  to  the  young  of  the  herring,  always  keeping  in  shoals,  and  swimming 
occasionally  near  the  surface  of  the  water,  where  they  often  fall  a  prey  to  aquatic 
buds.  Whitebait  live  upon  minute  Crustacea. 

1061.   What  are  anchovies? 

Anchovies  are  a  genus  of  soft-finned  fishes,*  belonging  to  the 
family  of  herrings,  but  separated  from  that  genus  by  certain 
structural  differences  of  habit  and  haunt. 

1062.  The  habits  of  all  the  herring  family  are  similar :  they  are  migratory,  and 
swim  in  shoals  ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  shad,  and  those  species  which 
frequent  the  great  freshwater  lakes  and  do  not  migrate  to  the  sea,  they  all  remain 
in  salt  water.  The  anchovies  inhabit  waters  nearer  to  the  equator  than  the 
herrings,  and  may  be  said  to  take  up  the  occupation  of  the  sea  where  the 
herrings  leave  it  off. 

1063.  Wliy  do  salmon  arrive  in  some  rivers  earlier   than  in 
others  ? 

It  has  been  suggested  that  this  depends  upon  the  varying  warmth 
of  the  waters  ;  those  highland  rivers  which  arise  from  large  locks 
being  all  early,  owing  to  the  warmer  temperature  and  great  mass  of 
their  sources  ;  while  those  rivers  which  are  swollen  by  melting 
snows  in  the  spring  mouths  are  later  in  their  fish-producing 
season. 

1064.  Why  do  female  salmon  in   the  spawning  season  ascend 
the  rivers  before  the  males  ? 

Because  the  former  are  impelled  by  a  necessity  which  probably 
operates  in  a  higher  degree  with  them  than  with  the  latter :  the 
males,  therefore,  follow  the  females,  and  pair,  and  attend  them 
during  their  spawning,  and  afterwards  become,  as  it  were,  their 
escort  to  the  sea. 

1065.  The  sexes  of  fishes,  if  we  except  the  sharks  and  rays,  offer  no  very  decided 
external  characters.  In  the  males,  the  respiratory  organs  occupy  more  space  than 

*  Engraulis  encrasicolus. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


"  The  salmon,  (which  at  spring  forsakes 
Thetis'  salt  waves,)  to  look  on  him, 
Upon  the  water's  top  doth  swim." — SHKRBVRNE. 


in  the  females ;  and  the  abdomen  is  larger  in  the  females  than  in  the  males  :  the 
males  may  he  distinguished  by  their  somewhat  sharper  and  more  pointed 
head,  the  greater  length  of  gill  cover,  and  the  body,  from  the  dorsal  fin  downwards, 
being  not  so  deep  compared  with  the  whole  length  of  the  fish. 

The  organs  of  reproduction  consist  of  two  elongated  oval  lobes  of  roe,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  body,  placed  between  the  ribs  and  the  intestinal  canal ;  the  lobes 
in  the  female  called  hard  roe,  contain  a  very  large  number  of  roundish  ova,  or 
eggs,  enclosed  in  a  membranous  bag.  In  the  male,  the  lobes  of  roe  are  smaller 
than  in  the  females,  and  have  the  appearance  of  two  elongated  masses  of  fat,  which 
are  called  soft  roe.  In  the  spawning  season,  these  soft  rows  become  fluid,  and  are 
voided  during  the  time  of  spawning,  the  ova  of  the  female  being  impregnated 
thereby. 

1066.  Why  do    salmon,  when  either  ascending  or  descending 
rivers,  halt    in    the  brackish  water    where  fresh  and  salt   water 
mingle  ? 

By  so  doing,  they  accustom  themselves  gradually  to  the 
change  of  element  which  they  have  to  undergo.  And  here  they 
obtain  a  release  from  numerous  parasitic  animals,  those  of  the 
salt  water  being  destroyed  by  contact  with  fresh,  and  vice  versd. 

1067.  Why  is  the  flesh  of  the  salmon  red  ? 

It  has  been  assumed  by  Dr.  Knox,  that  this  redness  is  owing  to 
the  peculiar  food  upon  which  the  salmon  subsists  when  at  sea — 
consisting  of  the  eggs  of  various  kinds  of  small  marine  animals. 

Salmon  are  known  to  eat,  also,  sand-eels,  small  fishes,  and  various 
diminutive  marine  animals.  Mr.  Morrison  stated  before  the 
Highland  Society,  that  he  had  taken  salmon  within  flood  mark, 
some  of  which  had  two,  and  others  three,  full-sized  herrings  in 
their  stomachs. 

1068.  WTiat  circumstances  give  rise  to   the  various  varieties  of 
trout  ? 

It  is  probable  that  there  are  not  only  varieties,  but  that  there  is 
more  than  one  species  of  river  trout.  But  when  we  consider 
geologically  the  various  strata  traversed  by  rivers  in  their  course, 
the  effect  these  variations  of  soil  must  produce  upon  the  water 


334  THE    REASON  WHY1: 


"  Lure 

From  his  dark  haunt,  beneath  the  tan  pled  roots 
Of  pendant  trees,  the  monarch  of  the  brook." — THOMSON. 


and  the  influence  which  the  constant  operation  of  the  water  is  likely 
to  have  upon  the  fish  that  inhabit  it  ;  when  we  reflect  also  on  the 
great  variety  of  food  afforded  by  different  rivers,  we  shall  be  able 
to  assign  very  probable  reasons  for  the  variations  both  in  size  and 
colour  which  are  found  to  occur. 


1069.  Lord  Howe  remarks,  that  "  There  are  two  considerable  streams  which  take 
their  rise  at  no  great  distance  from  each  other,  the  Whit eadder  and  the  Blackadder, 
the  latter  tributary  to  the  former.    The  Whitcadder  from  head  to  foot  flowing  along 
a  very  rocky  and  gravelly  bed,  while  the  Blackadder  (Blackwater)  rises  in  the  deep 
mosses  near  Weddcrlea,  and  the  Dorrington  laws  (high  hills),  and  flows  for  about 
half  its  course  through  a  rich  and  highly  cultivated  district.    The  trout  of  White- 
adder  ("Whitewater)  are  a  beautiful  silvery  fish,  but  good  for  nothing  ;  those  of  the 
other  dark,  almost  black,  with  bright  orange  fins,  and  their  flesh  excellent.    Nothing 
can  be  more  various  than   the  appearance  of  the  trout  of  these  two  rivers ;  and 
surely  nothing  can  be  more  easier  at  once  to  see  the  cause  of  this  difference." 

1070.  Why   do   young  pike  frequently  appear  in  ponds  where 
there  were  none  before  ? 

Because  the  spawn  of  the  pike  is  covered  with  a  sticky 
viscous  fluid ;  this  adheres  to  the  plumage  of  water-birds,  and 
is  by  them  borne  into  new  waters,  causing  the  unexpected  and 
somewhat  unaccountable  appearance  of  pike  in  new  waters. 

1071.  Why  do   smaller  fish   at   certain   seasons   appear   to    be 
familiar     with    the    pike,     while    at     others     they     avoid    his 
presence  ? 

Because  the  pike,  which  is  remarkable  for  its  voracity,  never 
theless  undergoes  periods  of  abstinence.  During  the  summer 
months  their  digestive  functions  are  somewhat  torpid,  and  in  warm 
sunny  weather  they  lie  basking  in  a  sleepy  state  for  hours  together. 
The  smaller  fish  appear  to  be  aware  when  this  abstinent  state 
of  their  foe  is  on  him  ;  they  are  then  less  alarmed  at  his  presence, 
and  may  be  seen  swimming  round  him  with  indifference.* 

•  Bluine's   "Rural    Sports." 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  335 


'  The  goodly  well  grown  trout  I  -with  my  angle  strike, 
And  Mith  my  bearded  wire  I  take  the  rav'nous  pike." — DEATTON. 


1072.  Wliy  does  the  pike  undergo   this  state  of  torpidity  ? 

It  is  remarkable  that  this  peculiarity  in  the  animal  economy  of 
the  pike  differs  materially  from  the  habits  of  other  fishes,  which, 
after  the  emaciation  from  the  effects  of  spawning,  require  an 
increase  of  food  to  repair  the  exhaustion.  But  with  the  pike,  the 
return  of  appetite  appears  to  be  suspended :  a  wise  provision  ; 
for,  were  this  fish  as  voracious  as  usual,  few  of  the  small  fry 
which  are  then  abundant  would  escape,  and  the  stock  of  fish 
would  be  materially  reduced. 

1073.  Why   are  "pike"    called  also   "jack"? 

These  are  verbal  distinctions  referring  to  the  size  and  age  of 
the  same  fish.  When  the  fish  does  not  exceed  four  or  five 
pound  weight,  it  is  called  in  England  "  a  jack "  ;  and  when  above 
that  weight  it  is  a  "pike" 

1074.  Why    is    the    pike    exceedingly     voracious    at     certain 
seasons  ? 

Because  it  is  a  fish  of  rapid  growth,  and  consequently  vigorous 
digestion.  The  young  fry  grow  rapidly,  attaining  two  pounds 
weight  in  the  first  year ;  and  they  gain  from  two  to  three  pounds 
weight  every  subsequent  year. 

Besides,  the  enormous  amount  of  exercise  which  the  pike  takes 
produces  a  great  expenditure,  and  creates  a  corresponding  demand 
for  food.  There  is  no  more  active  fish :  it  sometimes  darts 
through  the  water  with  the  speed  of  an  arrow. 

1075.  It  has  been  offered  in  illustration  of  the  great  digestive  powers  of  the  pike, 
that  after  in  part  swallowing  a  fish  little  smaller  than  itself,  those  parts  that  have 
entered  into  the  stomach  are  dissolved  with  amazing  rapidity,  while  those  in  the 
mouth  and  throat  which  are  yet  entire  make  a  constant  progress  downwards  as  the 
process  of  digestion  makes  way  for  them. 

The  pike  has  always  been  remarkable  for  extraordinary  voracity.  Eight  pike,  of 
koout  five  pounds  weight  each,  consumed  nearly  eight  hundred  gudgeons  in  threv 
weeks;  "and  the  appetite  of  one  of  these  pikes,"  says  Mr.  Jesse,  "was  almost 
One  morning  I  threw  to  Mm,  one  after  another,  five  roaches,  each 


336  THE   REASON   WHY. 


"  The  lavish  slave 

Six  thousand  pieces  for  a  barbel  gave ; 

A  sestrice  for  each  pound  it  weigh'cl,  as  they 

Gave  out,  that  hear  great  things,  but  greater  say." — DUKE. 

e.bout  four  inches  in  length ;  he  swallowed  four  of  them,  and  kept  the  last  in  his 
mouth  for  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  when  it  also  disappeared."  Digestion  in  the 
pike  goes  on  very  rapidly,  and  they  are  therefore  most  expensive  fish  to  maintain. 
In  default  of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  fishes  to  satisfy  them,  moor-hens,  ducks, 
and  indeed  any  animals  of  small  size,  whether  alive  or  dead,  are  constantly 
consumed ;  their  boldness  and  voracity  are  equally  proverbial.  Dr.  Plot  relates, 
that  at  Lord  Gower's  canal,  at  Trentham,  a  pike  seized  the  head  of  a  swan  as  she 
was  feeding  under  water,  and  gorged  so  much  of  it  as  killed  them  both  ;  the  servants 
perceiving  the  swan  with  its  head  under  water  for  a  longer  time  than  usual,  took 
the  boat,  and  found  both  swan  and  pike  dead.  Gesner  relates  that  a  pike  in  the 
Rhone  seized  on  the  lips  of  a  mule  that  was  brought  to  water,  and  that  the  beast 
drew  the  fish  out  before  it  could  disengage  itself.  Walton  was  assured  by  his 
friend  Mr.  Segrave,  who  kept  tame  otters,  that  he  had  known  a  pike  in  extreme 
hunger  fi^ht  with  one  of  his  otters  for  a  carp  which  the  otter  had  caught,  and  was 
then  bringing  out  of  the  water;  proving  the  old  adage,  that,  "it  is  a  hard  thing 
to  persuade  the  belly,  because  it  has  no  ears."  A  woman  in  Poland  had  her  foot 
seized  by  a  pike  as  she  was  washing  clothes  in  a  pond  ;  and  the  same  thing  is  said  to 
have  happened  at  Killingworth  pond,  near  Coventry.  The  head  keeper  of  Richmond 
Park  was  once  washing  his  hand  over  the  side  of  a  boat  in  the  great  pond  in  that 
park,  when  a  pike  made  a  dart  at  it,  and  he  had  but  just  time  to  withdraw  it.  Mr. 
Jesse  adds,  that  "  a  gentleman  now  residing  at  Weybridge,  in  Surrey,  walking  one 
day  by  the  side  of  the  River  Wey,  near  that  town,  saw  a  large  pike  in  a  shallow 
creek.  He  immediately  pulled  off  his  coat,  tucked  up  his  shirt-sleeves,  and  went 
into  the  water  to  intercept  the  return  of  the  fish  to  the  river,  and  to  endeavour  to 
throw  it  out  upon  the  bank  by  getting  his  hands  under  it.  During  this  attempt, 
the  pike,  finding  he  could  not  make  his  escape,  seized  one  of  the  arms  of  the 
gentleman,  and  lacerated  it  so  much  that  the  marks  of  the  wound  are  still 
visible."* 

1076.  Why  is  the  barbel  so  called? 

From  the  Latin  barbalatus,  meaning  barbs,  or  beards,  in 
reference  to  the  appendages  to  its  lower  jaw. 

1077.  Why   is  tJie  first  ray  of  the   dorsal  Jin  of  the,  barbel 
deeply  serrated  ? 

The  serrations  arise  from  certain  additions  to  the  ray,  which 
impart  a  greater  degree  of  strength  to  it.  This  increased  strength 
facilitates  the  movements  of  the  fish  in  the  rapid  currents  and 
mill  streams  which  it  frequents. 

•  YarreU's  "  British  Fishe*." 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  337 


"  The  dainty  gudgeon,  roche,  the  minnow,  and  the  bleak, 
Since  they  but  little  are,  I  little  need  to  speak."— DRAYTON. 


1078.  Why    has    the    barbel   four    wattles,    or    barbs,    on    Us 
lower  jaw? 

The  barbel,  as  well  as  devouring  small  fish,  bores  in  the  loose 
soil  for  slugs  and  worms,  and  these  wattles  serve  as  feelers,  in  the 
pursuit  of  food. 

1079.  Why  may  small  fish  be   seen    attending  the  barbel  while 
&  bores  in  the  soil  ? 

Because  they  eat  the  minute  animalcules  thrown  up  from 
the  soil  by  the  movements  of  the  barbeL 

1080.  Why,   when  angling  for   roach,   is   it   necessary   to  try 
the  water  at  all   depths  f 

Because,  being  miscellaneous  feeders,  roach  swim  at  various 
depths  ;  and,  being  gregarious,  they  move  in  shoals  :  so  that  at 
one  level  there  may  be  plenty  of  fish,  and  at  another  none 
at  all. 

1081.  Why  is  the  bleak  commonly  called  the  water  swallow? 

Because  it  sometimes  occupies  one  part  of  a  river,  then  takes 
its  departure  to  another ;  the  deeps,  the  shallows,  and  the  surface, 
are  alternately  their  resorfc  ;  and  they  further  resemble  swallows  iu 
their  nimbleness  when  in  pursuit  of  prey,  and  particularly  in 
the  catching  of  flies. 

1082.  Why    has    the    roach     a    very    small    mouth    without 
teeth? 

The  roach  lives  principally  upon  insects  and  fresh-water  mol- 
lusca,  which  it  finds  adhering  to  the  weeds  ;  but  which  it  would 
be  unable  to  obtain  were  it  not  for  this  peculiar  structure  of 
the  mouth, 

1083.  Why    does   the   shanny    habitually   hide    itself    behind 
ttones,  rocks,  &c. 

Being  destitute  of  a  swimming-bladder,  this  fish  is  co^Jtued  to 


338  THE   REASON   WHY: 


Their  scaly  armour's  Tyrian  hue, 
Through  richest  purple  to  the  view, 
Betray'd  a  gulden  gleam." — GRAY. 


the  bottom,  where  it  takes  up  its  residence  on  a  rock  or  stone, 
from  which  it  rarely  wanders  far,  and  beneath  which  it  seeks 
shelter  from  ravenous  fishes  and  birds. 

1084.  When  the  tide  is  receding,  many  of  these  fishes  hide  beneath  the  stones,  or 
in  pools,  but  the  larger  individuals  quit  the  water,  and,  by  the  use  of  the  ventra* 
fins,  creep  into  convenient  holes,  rarely  more  than  one  in  each,  and  there,  with  the 
head  dow  nward,  they  wait  for  a  few  hours,  until  the  return  of  the  water  restores 
them  to  Lberty.  If  discovered  or  alarmed  in  these  chambers,  they  return  by  a 
backward  motion  to  the  bottom  of  the  cavity. 

1085.  How  do  gold  and  silver  fish  kept  in  globes  subsist 
upon  whti  appears  to  us  to  be  water  only  ? 

Because  the  water  abounds  in  animalcules,  which,  although 
invisible  to  the  human  eye,  are  visible  to  the  eyes  of  fish, 
and  consumed  by  them  as  food. 

1086.  The  necessity  for  frequently  changing  the  water  in  which  gold  and  silver 
fish  are  confined  is  thus  made  obvious  enough  ;  for  if  this  precaution  is  neglected, 
the  fish  being  deprived  of  their-  food  must  eventually  die. 

1087.  Why  do  gold  fishes  kept  in  vases  so  frequently  come  to 
the  surface  of  the  water  ? 

When  the  water  becomes  vitiated,  the  fishes  come  to  the  surface 
to  swallow  air;  after  the  air  has  been  changed,  they  may  be 
observed  to  reject  it  again  by  a  kind  of  eviction,  and  seek  the 
surface  once  more  for  a  fresh  supply  ;  so  that  in  this  way  they  are 
enabled  to  alleviate  the  evil  consequences  which  result  from  the 
unhealthy  state  of  their  surrounding  medium. 

Sub-order  II. — Anacanthina. 

1088.  Why  are  the  fishes    of  the    sub-order    anacanthina   so 
called? 

Because  they  are  without  the  sharp  spines  which  support  the  fins 
*f  other  fishes ;  these  organs  in  the  anacanthina  being  arranged 


XATURAL   HISTORY.  339 


And  o'er  the  ocean's  crystal  mirror, 

Taught  the  unnumber'd  scaly  throng 

To  trace  their  liquid  path  along." — MOORE. 


upon   soft  rays.     The  word  is   derived  from  a,  "without,"  and 
acantha,  a  "  spine,"  or  "  thorn." 

1089.  These  fishes  also  present  a  difference  in  the  stracture  of  the  air-bladder, 
•which,  instead  of  communicating  with  the  throat  by  a  duct,  as  is  the  case  in  the 
physostomata,  is  here  more  completely  closed,  and  there  is  no  connection  between 
the  anterior  part  of  the  bladder  and  the  throat. 

1090.  Why  have  the  sand-eel  and  the  sand-launce  a  projecting 
lower  jaw  ? 

Because  it  is  the  habit  of  these  fishes  to  bury  themselves  in  the 
sand,  and  by  the  sharpness  and  muscular  power  of  the  jaw,  and  the 
slenderness  of  their  bodies,  they  are  able  to  bury  themselves  in  wet 
sand  five  or  six  inches  deep  with  great  rapidity. 

1091.  Why  is  the  cod   found  in  great   abundance  upon    the 
coast  of  Newfoundland  ? 

Because  in  that  region  there  exist  vast  submarine  mountains 
upon  which  crustaceous  and  molluscous  animals  are  abundant. 
These  constitute  the  natural  food  of  tlie  cod. 

1092.  Why  does  the  skin  of  a  sole  act  as  a  clearer  for  coffee  ? 

Because  it  contains  a  large  proportion  of  albumen,  which,  being 
driven  from  the  skin  by  the  action  of  hot  water,  afterwards 
coagulates,  and  fixes  and  precipitates  the  floating  grains  of 
coffee. 

1093.  Why  are    soles    and    other   flat  fish   destitute    of   air 
bladders  / 

Because,  being  bottom  fish,  and  seldom  elevating  their  range  in 
the  water,  they  do  not  require  an  apparatus,  the  purpose  of  which 
is  to  vary  the  specific  gravity  of  the  moving  body. 

1094.  Why  do  dead  fishes  usually  float  ? 

It  appears  to  be  a  creative  design  that  when  these  inhabitants  of 


840  THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  Here's  a  very  fat  carp,  shall  we  dress  you  a  brace  ? 
Would  you  chuse  any  soles,  or  a  mullet,  or  plaice?" — CAMBRIDGE. 


the  deep  die  in  any  other  manner  than  as  prey  to  larger  species, 
they  shall  rise  to  the  surface,  and  be  presented  as  food  to  sea  birds, 
the  scavengers  of  the  sea. 

The  bodies  of  fishes  are  always  so  near  to  the  specific  gravity  of 
wa,ter,  that  the  slightest  development  of  gases  in  their  tissues,  which 
would  arise  from  the  first  stage  of  decomposition,  brings  them 
to  the  surface. 

1095.  Why  are  bottom,  or  flat  fishes,  more  commonly  found 
floating  than  others  ? 

Because,  being  occupants  of  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  their  bodies 
half  sunk  in  the  earth,  and,  concealed  by  the  unity  of  their  colour 
with  that  of  the  bed  upon  which  they  lie,  they  are  less  liable  to  be 
preyed  upon  than  other  fishes. 

The  peculiar  shape  of  their  bodies  is  also  a  great  protection  to 
them,  since  they  cannot  be  swallowed  whole,  as  is  the  case  with 
many  fishes. 

Larger  numbers  of  flat  fish,  therefore,  may  be  supposed  to  die 
from  natural  causes  than  is  common  with  other  species.  Hence 
they  are  more  frequently  found  floating  dead  than  other  kinds 
of  fish. 

1096.  VTny  do  soles  swim  upon  their  sides? 

Because  their  eyes  are  placed  upon  one  side   only,  by  which, 

being  bottom  fish,  they  are 
able  to  lie  upon  the  ground, 
and  look  upward  for  their 
prey.  For  a  relative  reason, 
too,  their  upper  sides  are 
dark,  and  of  the  colour  of  the 
bed  which  they  inhabit,  while 
their  undersides  are  white. 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  341 


"  Of  fishes—  every  size  and  shape, 
Which  nature  frames  of  light  escape, 
Devouring  man  to  shun."— SMART. 


Sub-order  III. — Pharyngonatha. 

1097.    Wl> y  is  the  third  sub-order  designated  pharyngonatha  ? 

The  name  is  derived  from  pharynx,  the  pharynx,  the  muscular 
fang  at  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  ;  and  gnathos,  thc>  jaw, 
indicating  that  the  pharyngeal  bones  are  united. 

1098.  This  sub-order  includes  an  assemblage  of  fishes  of  diverse  forms,  in  -which 
there  are  both  soft  and  spinous  rayed  ;  the  pharynxed  bones  of  this  sub-order  are 
completely  united,  so  as  to  form  a  single  bone,  which  is  usually  armed  with  teeth. 
The  air-bladder  is  always  completely  closed.* 

1099.  Why  is  the  garfish  usually    called   the  mackerel  guide  ? 

Because  it  commonly  approaches  the  shore  to  spawn,  a  little 
prior  to  mackerel  doing  so.  Hence  the  popular  idea  that  the 
garfish  guides  mackerel  to  the  shore. 

1100.  Why  is  the  parrot  fish  so  called? 

Because  of  the  peculiar  hooked  formation  of  its  mouth,  and 
the  brilliancy  of  its  colours. 

1101.  Why   has    the  parrot    fish     rounded  jav;s    and    scale- 
like  teeth? 

Because  they  browse  on  newly-formed  layers  of  stony  cora/s, 
digesting  the  animal  matter  therein  contained,  and  setting  free  the 
carbonate  of  lime  in  a  chalky  state.  Their  jaws  and  teeth  possess 
immense  strength. 

Sub-order  IV. — Acanthoptera. 

1102.  Why  is  the  fourth  sub-order  called  acanthoptera  ? 

From  acanthos,  a  thorn,  and  pterygion,  a  fin, — meaning  thcrn- 
finned.  One  of  the  most  distinguishing  features  of  these  fishes  is, 

•  Orr's  "  Circle  of  the  Sciences." 


342 


THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  The  -west  part  of  the  land  was  high  browed,  much  like  the 
head  of  a.  gurnard."— HACKLUYT. 


that  the  spinous  rays  of  their  fins  constitute  formidable  defensive 
weapons. 

1103.  The  number  of  fishes  belonging  to  this  sub-order  is  exceedingly  great,  and 
they  present  a  considerable  diversity  of  structure. 

1104.   Why     do    the    spinous     defensive    weapons    of    fishes 
turn   backwards  ? 


Because  their  enemies  at 
tack  them  from,  behind ;  the 
direction  of  the  sharp  spines 
is  therefore  most  efficient 
for  their  protection. 


1105.  Why  are  the  Indian  gurnards  called  "flying  fishes  ? 

Because,  when  pursued  by  the  dolphin,  or  other  large  creature 
of  prey,  they  spring  from,  the  sea,  in  which  action  their  large 
pectoral  fins  support  them  upon  the  air,  in  the  manner  of  a  para 
chute.  Their  action,  however,  is  not  that  of  flying,  but 
springing  from  the  sea, 

1106.  Why     are     the    chcetodons    remarkable    for     brilliancy 
of  colours  ? 

•,-.*,  V%v    IV 

These  are  tropical  fishes,  and, 
like  other  animals  of  the  tropics, 
remarkable  for  their  beauty, 
which  may  be  attributed  in  this, 
as  in  other  instances,  to  the  in 
tense  action  of  the  sun,  although 
the  nature  of  that  action  cannot 
be  explained. 

The  chsetodons  have  been 
described  as  occupying  a  similar  place  in  the  tropical  seas  to 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


343 


Thick  in  yon  stream  of  light,  a  thousand  ways, 
Upward,  and  downward,  thwarting,  and  convolv'd, 
The  quivering  nations  sport." — THOMSON. 


those  which  parrots  occupy  in  tropical  forests  :  they  even  excel 
the  parrots  in  brilliancy  while  living.  All  the  colours  have  a 
metallic  lustre,  and  though  some  of  them  are  of  one  very  intense 
colour,  as  golden,  yellow,  ultra-marine,  or  rich  bronze,  when  the 
fish  is  at  rest  ;  yet,  when  it  moves,  they  are  irridescent,  and 
sparkle  with  gem-like  lustre.  The  chcetodon  striatus  is  sometimes 
called  the  zebra,  on  account  of  its  beautiful  stripes. 

1108.    What,    peculiarity    does    the  structure    and    habits     of 
globe  fishes   present  ? 


These  fishes  possess  the  power 
of  distending  themselves  into  a 
globular  form,  by  inflating  with  air 
a  large  sac  contained  in  the 
abdomen.  When  thus  distended, 
they  float  along  the  water  with  the 
back  downwards,  swimming  on 
wards  by  means  of  their  pectoral 
fins.  They  are  covered  with  a 
series  of  large  spines  ;  which  are 
raised  up  when  the  body  is  thus 
inflated,  so  as  to  form  a  very 
efficient  means  of  defence. 


Tax 

1108.  Why  is  the  upper  jaw  of  the  sword-jish  elongated  into 

blade-like  weapon  ? 

The  sword-fish  inhabits  seas  where  the  monsters  of  the  deep, 


wliales,  sharks,  and  throws  abound     Here  these  monsters  battle 


34<1  THE    REASON    WHY. 


1  Straight  as  above  the  surface  of  the  flood 
They  wanton  rise,  or,  urg'd  by  hunger,  leap, 
Then  fix,  with  gentle  twitch,  the  barbed  hook." — THOMSO 


with  each  other ;  and  the  sword-fish,  being  among  the  smaller  of 
the  races,  is  armed  with  a  weapon  which  makes  him  as  formidable 
as  the  larger  and  more  powerful  kinds. 

1109.  The  sword-fish  living,  at  least  in  part,  upon  the  bodies  of  fishes  larger  than 
itself,  tises  its  formidable  weapon  to  lacerate  and  divide  their  substance  intc 
convenient  morsels. 

The  prolonged  snout  forms  an  excellent  cut-water  when  the  fish  makes  its  arrow- 
like  darts  through  the  water  ;  and  the  powerful  tail  is  calculated  to  drive  home  the 
\ccapjn  with  enormous  force. 

1110.  Why    is   the   "John  Dory"  so  called? 

This  name  evidently  arises  from  a  corrupt  pronunciation  of  a 
French  term,  designating  the  colour  of  the  lighter  parts  of  the  fish, 
which  is  yellow,  with  metallic  reflections,  and,  ^therefore,  styled 
jaune  doree,  or  golden  yellow. 

1111.  Why    are    some   fishes   provided    with    an     apparatus 
resembling  a   boy's  sucker? 

Because,  by  pressing  this  organ  against  any  surface  they  are 
enabled  to  retain  their  hold  without  using  teeth  or  fins  ;  and  by 
this  means  retain  their  position  in  the  water  at  the  same  time 
that  they  catch  their  food. 

1112.  The  himp-fish  fastens  itself  by  an  apparatus  on  the  lower  part  of  its  body, 

while  the  sucking-fish  has  a  similar 
provision  on  his  back,  by  which  it 
attaches  itself  to  the  shark,  or  to 
whatever  is  afloat,  or  the  bottom  of 
ships.  In  the  cuttle-fish  there  is  to 
be  seen  a  modification  of  the  same 
kind  of  apparatus,  which  can  be 
turned  by  the  animal  in  any  direc 
tion,  either  to  fix  itself  or  to  drag 
itself  from  place  to  place.  There  is 
another  fish,  called  the  "  Harlequin 
angler."  The  appearance  of  this 
fish  is  grotesque  and  singular;  th« 
pectoral  fins  resemble  short  arms,  and  are  palmated  at  their  tips.  These  fins  art 
converted  into  feet,  and  the  fish  has  bet  n  known  to  live  .hree  days  out  of 
«nd  walk  about  like  a  dog.* 

*  Bell  on  the  Hand. 


S  ATLT  UAL    HISTORY. 


Cold  welle  streams,  nothing  dcde, 

That  swormmen  full  of  smale  fishes  light, 

With  fimies  red,  and  scales  silver  bright." — CHAUCER. 


Sub-order    V. — Lophobranchia. 
1113.   Wliy  is  the  fifth   sub-order   named   lophobranchia  f 

From  lophon,  a  crest,  and  branchia,  gills — meaning  crest' 
yilled. 

1114.  In  the  lophobranchia  the  gills  are  arranged  in  little  tufts,  disposed  in  pairs 
along  the  branchial  arches.  The  aperture  f  jr  the  exit  of  water  is  very  small.  The 
body  is  elongated  in  its  form,  and  covered  with  bony  plates.  The  fins  are  imper 
fectly  developed.  The  bones  of  the  face  are  prolonged,  forming  a  snout.  This 
sub-order  includes  only  a  single  family,  composed  of  small  fishes,  of  very 
singular  appearance. 

1115.  IVliy  has  the  sea-horse  a  small  pouch-like  opening  upon 
its  abdomen  ? 

In  the  course  of  the  summer,  this  curious  sac  is  filled  with 
eggs ;  and  at  a  later  period,  when  the  fry  are  hatched,  they 
continue  for  a  time  to  seek  shelter  within  this  singular  cavity. 

1116.  Mr.  Yarrell  describes  this  curious  provision  nearly  us  follows :—"  The 
male  differs  from  the  female  in  the  belly,  from  the  vent  to  the  tail  fin,  being  much 
broader,  and  in  having,  for  about  two-thirds  of  its  length,  two  soft  flaps,  which 
fold  together  and  form  a  pouch.  They  breed  in  summer,  the  females  depositing 
their  roe  in  the  pouches  of  the  males. 

1117.  Why  has  the  sea-horse*  a  pointed  tail,  destitute  of  the 
usual  Jin  ? 

It  uses  the  long  tapering  tail 
to  support  itself  by  twisting  it  round 
the  stems  of  sea-weed  and  other  objects. 
moving  about  slowly  ainongst  sea 
weed,  by  a  scries  of  undulations,  feeding 
upon  minute  Crustacea,  worms,  mol- 
lusca,  &c.  As  the  creature  cannot  pur 
sue  its  prey,  a  caudal  fin  would  be  of  uo 
utility ;  the  tail  is  therefore  converted 
into  a  kind  of  fulcrum,  from  which  the 
animal  srrikes  its  prey. 

*  Hippocampus. 

15* 


346  THE    REASON    WHY  : 


And  over  all  with  scales  was  arm'd, 

Like  plated  cote  of  steele,  so  couched  neare 

That  nought  mote  perce." — SPENSKH. 


Sub-order  VI. — Plectognatha. 
1118.   Why    is   the  sixth  sub-order  termed  plectognatha  ? 

From  plecto,  to  connect,  and  gnathos,  a  jaw — signifying  that 
the  bones  of  the  upper  jaw  and  palate  are  connected  with  those 
of  the  cranium. 

1119.  The  head  is  large,  the  mouth  small,  and  the  gills  so  covered  with  skin  and 
muscles  that  only  a  small  aperture  is  left  for  the  exit  of  water  employed  in  respira 
tion.  The  body  is  usually  short  and  stout,  and  covered  with  a  thich  rough  skin,  or 
sometimes  with  bony  plates. 

1120.  Why  is   the  trunk-fish  covered  with  a  complete  suit   of 
bony  plates  ? 

These  plates  furnish  to  the  trunk-fish  a  coat  of  armour  analogous 

to  that  worn  by  the  arma- 
dillo,  and  doubtless  for 
similar  purposes.  The  body 
is  covered  with  plates,  so  as 
to  form  a  perfect  coat  of 
armour,  leaving  only  the  tail, 
fins,  mouth,  and  a  small 
portion  of  the  gill-opening,  capable  of  motion,  all  of  which  move- 
able  parts  pass  through  openings  of  the  armadillo-like  coat  of  mail, 
the  joints  being  protected  and  rendered  flexible  by  a  leathery 

substance. 

t 

ORDER  IV.— GANOIDEA. 

1121.  Why  is  the  fourth  order  of  fishes  named  ganoidea  ? 

From  ganos,  splendour,  and  edios,  appearance.  Of  the  remark 
able  fishes  belonging  to  this  order,  very  few  exist  at  present  in  our 
waters.  But  their  fossil  remains  occur  in  abundance  in  almost  all 
the  fossiliferous  strata  of  the  earth.  They  are  divided  into  two 
tub-orders :— 


NATURAL  HISTo  RY .  347 


From  that  clear  space,  where,  in  the  cheerful  ray 
Of  the  warm  sun,  the  scaly  people  play." — CRABBE. 


Sub-order  I. — Holostea. 

1122.  }Hiy    is    the  first    sub-order    of    tlie    ganoidea    called 
kolostea  f 

From  olos,  the  whole,  and  osteon,  a  bone,  in  reference  to  the 
feet  of  their  being  covered  with  a  suit  of  scales  or  bone. 

Sub-order  II. — Chondrostea. 

1123.  Why     is     the    second    sub-order    of    ganoidea    called 
uhondrostea  ? 

From  chondros,  a  cartilage,  and  osteon,  a  bone,  signifying 
the  gristly  nature  of  the  fish. 

ORDER  V.—SELACHIA. 

1124.  Why  is  the  fifth  order  of  fishes  called  selachia? 

From  selachos,  a  Greek  common  noun,  signifying  a  gristly,  or 
cartilaginous  fish. 

The  skeleton  in  the  selachia  is  entirely  of  a  cartilaginous  nature.  The  skull 
consists  of  a  cartilaginous  capsule,  composed  of  a  single  piece  without  any 
indications  of  suture.  The  structure  of  the  jaws  varies  considerably.  Thev  are 
divided  into  two  sub-orders  : — 

Sub-order  I. — Holocephala. 

1125.  Why  is  the  first  sub-order  of  selacia  called  holocephala? 
From  olos,  whole,  and  cephale,  head,  meaning  that  the  head  ic 

one  entire  piece  or  skull. 

1 1 26.  The  holocephala  are  all  oviparous,  and  their  eggs,  like  those  of  the  sharks 
and  rays,  are  enclosed  in  a  strong,  horny  capsule. 

Sub-order  II. — Plagiostomata, 

1127.  Why  is  the  second  sub-order  of  selachia  called  plagiosto- 
mata  ? 

From  plagios,  transverse  or  oblique,  and  stoma,  inouth,  in 
reference  to  the  oblique  form  of  the  inouth,  which  is  always  arched, 
and  contains  numerous  rows  of  teeth.  The  mouth  is  also  wide,  and 


348 


THE   REASON   WHY  : 


"  Increasing  still  the  terrors  of  those  storms, 
His  jaws  horrific  arm'd  with  threefold  fate, 
Here  dwells  the  direful  shark.     Lured  by  the  scent 
Of  steaming  crowds,  of  rank  disease,  and  death." — THOMSON. 

placed  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body  at  some  distance  from  the 
extremity  of  the  snout. 

1129.  Why  are  sharks  said  to  follow  in  the  wake  of  ships 
on  board  which  there  may  be  sick  people  ? 

Sharks  instinctively  follow  ships,  with  the  object  of  picking 
up  refuse  matters  which  are  constantly  being  thrown  overboard. 

The  well-known  voracity  of  the  shark — the  manner  in  which  it 
seizes  upon  the  body  of  man  alive  or  dead — gives  it  an  ominous 
aspect  when  following  in  the  wake  of  a  ship  having  a  sick  crew. 
And  hence  has  arisen  the  popular  error,  that  sharks  follow  ships, 
waiting  for  dead  bodies  to  be  thrown  overboard. 

1130.  Why  have  the  eggs  of  sharks  and 
rays  long  filamentous  processes  attached 
to  them  ? 

For  the  purpose  of  attaching  the  eggs  to 
tea-weeds,  so  that  they  may  not  be  damaged 
by  being  beaten  on  the  shores,  nor  preyea 
upon  by  crustaceous  animals.  Each  egg  con 
sists  of  a  horny  case,  filled  with  a  nutritious 
fluid.  The  empty  cases  are  frequently  found 
by  the  sea-side,  and  aje  commonly  called 
mermaids'  purses. 


1131.  Why  have  the  rays,  and  kindred 
fishes,  long  tails  armed  with  spines? 

These  organs,  as  well  as  being  used  for 
propulsion,  are  employed  as  weapons  of 
defence,  and  from  the  muscular  strength  of 
the  fish,  are  very  formidable  when  seized  or 
terrified  :  its  habit  is  to  twist  its  long  and 
flexible  tail  round  the,  object  of  attack,  and, 
with  the  serrated  spine,  tear  the  surface, 
lacerating  it  in  an  effective  inanner. 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  349 


"  Had  I  like  fish,  with  fins  and  gills,  been  made, 
Then  mi^ht  I  in  your  element  have  play'd  ; 
With  ease  have  dived  beneath  your  azure  tide."—  FAWKES. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

1132.  How  is  the  breathing  of  fakes  conducted? 

The  breathing  of  fishes  takes  place  by  gills.  The  water, 
which  is  impregnated  by  atmospheric  air,  is  taken  in  by  the  mouth, 
and  forced  out  again  by  the  apertures  on  each  side  of  the  neck. 
It  is  thus  made  to  pass  between  the  gills,  which  form  a  set  of 
comb-like  vascular  fringes,  supported  upon  a  system  of  bones 
termed  the  branchical  arches,  and  during  this  passage  the  air  is 
absorbed  by  the  blood  of  the  fish. 

These  fringes  are  generally  four  in  number  on  each  side,  and 
are  attached  by  one  extremity  to  an  intermediate  chain  of  bones 
situated  opposite  the  middle  of  the  neck,  behind  the  hyoid  bone, 
while  by  their  opposite  extremity  they  are  joined  by  ligaments  to 
the  under  surface  of  the  skull. 

1133.  Why  is  the  flesh  of  fishes  white? 

Because  the  oxidized  blood  is  chiefly  confined  to  a  few  internal 
organs,  as  the  heart,  liver,  kidneys,  lungs,  arid  gills  ;  the  flesh 
is  consequently  white  and  apparently  bloodless. 

1134.  Why  do  fishes  swallow  their  food   hastily,  and  without 
mastication  ? 

Because  they  are  obliged  unceasingly  to  open  and  close  the 
jaws  for  the  purpose  of  respiration,  and  cannot  long  retain  food 
in  the  mouth  when  quite  shut. 

1135.  Why  are   the  teeth   of  fishes  slightly  curved  inwards? 
Because   this  form  is  best  adapted   for  taking  a  firm  hold  of 

prey,  which  is  frequently  alive,  and  which  without  such  a  pro 
vision  would,  in  its  struggles,  easily  escape  from  the  mouth  of 
the  captor. 

1136.  W!AJ   does    a   fish    gasp    violently   when  taken   out    of 
the  water  ? 

Because  it  endeavours  to  separate  the  gill  filaments,  by  which 


THE   REASON    WHY  : 


"  See  how  she  gasps,  and  struggles  hard  for  life." — LLOYD. 

it  is    supplied  with    breath,    and  which    adhere  together  when 
deprived  of  their  natural  element. 

1136.    Why   are  certain   species  of  fish  constituted  to  live  for 
period  out  of  water  '{ 


Because  they  inhabit  ponds  and  streams  in  warm  countries, 
where,  in  many  situations,  there  is  an  ample  supply  both  of  food 
and  water  for  fish  during  the  rainy  season;  but  a  complete 
deficiency  of  both  when  this  is  succeeded  by  a  periodical  drought. 
Such  receptacles  can  only  be  tenanted  by  fish  which  are  fur 
nished  with  the  peculiar  apparatus  for  keeping  the  gill  -moist ;  since, 
when  one  pond  or  stream  is  dried  up,  they  can  migrate  in  search  of 
another.  In  the  course  of  these  journeys,  they  climb  up  steep 
banks,  and  even  trees ;  and,  by  a  remarkable  instinct,  they 
seem  always  to  travel  to  the  nearest  water. 

1137.  Why  is  that  part  of  the  fish's  eyes  known  as  the 
crystalline  lens,  much  rounder  than  in  the  eyes  of  the  terrestrial 
animals  ? 

Because  the  rays  of  light,  in  passing  from  water  into  the  eye, 
require  to  be  refracted  by  a  more  convex  surface  than  when  it 
passes  out  of  air  into  the  eye. 

1138.  As  an  illustration  of  the  instances  adduced  here,  of  the  adaptation  of  the  flsh'a 
eye  to  the  medium  in  which  it  lives,  we  may  observe  that  the  power  in  the  human 
eye,  for  example,  of  drawing  the  pencil  of  rays  to  a  focus,  and  producing  an  accurate 
image  upon  the  retina  in  the  bottom  of  the  eye,  depends  principally  upon  two  circum 
stances—the  form  of  the  cornea  and 
the  convexity  of  the  iens.  That  t'ae 
cornea  may  produce  this  effect,  it  is 
not  only  necessary  that  it  should  be 
convex,  as  in  fig.  1 ,  but  that  the  rays 
should  enter  it  from  a  rarei  medium. 
As  this  cannot  be  effected  in  the  water, 
the  lens  or  crystalline  humour, 
which  is  much  denser  than  water,  i§ 
brought  into  operation.  In  the  eye  of  an  animal  living  in  the  atmosphere,  the  lens 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


The  sounds  and  seas,  with  all  their  finny  drove, 

Now  to  the  moon  in  wavering  morrice  move." — MILTON. 


is  removed  backwards,  and  resembles  the  optician's  double  convex  lens ;  but  in  the 
fiijh  it  is  a  sphere,  and  being  brought  in  contact  with  the  transparent  cornea,  it 
not  only  has  the  power  to  concentrate  the  rays  of  light  coming  through  the  water, 
but  by  its  altered  position  it  increases  greatly  the  sphere  of  vision  (fig.  2).  It 
may  be  added  that  it  is  not  exactly  the  cornea  that  is  deficient  in  the  fish,  but  tha 
aqueous  humour  behind  it.  An  aqueous  fluid  being  thus  both  behind  and  befor» 
the  cornea,  and  that  membrane  being  in  a  very  slight  degree  thicker  in  the 
centre  than  in  the  margin,  this  part  of  the  organ  which  is  so  efficient  in  the  atmo 
sphere  is  rendered  useless  in  water.  A  man  diving,  for  example,  sees  imperfectly, 
somewhat  in  the  condition  of  an  aged  person  who  requires  spectacles. 


1139.   Why  does  a  fish  lie  with  his  head  against  the  stream? 

Because  when  a  fish  is  situated  with  his  head  down  the 
stream,  he  is  compelled  to  travel  more  rapidly  than  the  waters, 
or  the  latter  will  find  its  way  into  the  gills,  and,  by  becoming 
stationary,  suffocate  him. 

1140.  A  trout  may  be  seen  lying  for  hours  stationary,  while  the  stream  is  running 
past  him ;  and  it  sometimes  appears  to  remain  so  for  whole  days  and  nights.  In 
salmon-fishing  the  fly  is  played  upon  the  broken  water  in  the  midst  of  a  torrent, 
and  there  the  fish  shows  himself,  rising  from  a  part  of  the  river  where  men  could 
not  preserve  their  footing,  though  assisted  by  poles,  or  locking  their  arms 
together. 

1141.  Why  do   the  jack    and  stickleback  keep  up    a    continual 
'motion  of  the  fins  nearest  their  gills  ? 

Because  they  frequent  still  shallows,  and  require  the  water  to  be 
perpetually  brought  to  their  gills.  In  this  case,  the  water  does  not 
come  of  itself,  and,  therefore,  the  fish  moves  his  pectoral  fins  con 
tinually  to  create  a  perpetual  change  in  the  water,  propelling 
that  which  has  already  passed  through  the  gills,  bringing  fresh  iu 
its  place,  and  thus  keeping  up  a  constant  current. 

1142.  Neither  to  the  jack  nor  the  stickleback  does  the  motion  appear  to  cause 
any  exertion  ;   it  seems  natural  to  them,  and  a  distinct  function  apart  from  the 
motion  of  the  fins  for  swimming  purposes.     It  is,  in  fact,  somewhat  analogous  to 
the  perpetual  motion  of  the  heart,  lungs,  and  internal  viscera  in  the  human 
body. 


THE   REASON    WHY  : 


"  A  man  may  fish  with  the   worm  that  ha-;h  eat  of  a   kin^ 
and  eat  of  the  fish  that  hath  fed  of  that  worm."— SHAKSPERE. 


1143.  Why   do  fishes  which  swim  vertically  inhabit    near    ih< 
surface,    while     those    which    swim    horizontally     keep    to     tht 
bottom  ? 

The  fish  which  swims  on 
edge  has  the  tail  much 
more  effectively  formed  as 
a  swimming  organ,  and  the 
fins  much  firmer,  as  well 
as  more  produced ;  they 
are,  therefore,  rapid  swim 
mers,  and  rather  discursive 
in  their  motion.  From 
an  opposite  development, 

fishes   swimming  on   the  flat  of  their  bodies   can   only  progress 

slowly,  and  do  not,  on  that  account,  range  far. 

1144.  Why  will  a  fsh  which   has    broken   away  ivith  a  hook, 
frequently  take  another  hook  immediately  afterwards  ? 

Because  the  mouths  of  fishes  are  usually  cartilaginous,  and 
furnished  (at  least  in  the  part  where  the  hook  strikes)  with  few 
nerves,  or  they  are  altogether  absent.  In  such  a  case  the  fish 
experiences  little  inconvenience  from  the  presence  of  a  hook,  and 
boldly  strikes  at  a  fresh  bait. 

1145.  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  says  :— "  I  have  caught  pike  with  four  or  five  hooks 
in  their  mouths,  and  tackle  which  they  had  broken  away  with  only  a  few  minutes 
before  ;  and  the  hooks  seemed  to  have  had  no  other  effect  than  that  of  serving  as  a 
sauce  piquante,  urging  them  to  seize  another  morsel  of  the  same  kind."* 

1146.  IVhy  do  wounds  in  fish  heal  rapidly,  and  why  do  they 
appear  to  he  generally  exempt  from  disease  ? 

Because  the  temperature  of  the  medium  in  which  they  reside  is 
uniform,  and  they  are  consequently  not  subject  to  those  alterations 
of  the  atmosphere,  which  are  a  fruitful  source  rf  morbidity  te 
other  portions  of  the  animal  creation. 


Salmonia.' 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  353 


"  Being  moody,  give  him  line  and  scope  ;  till  that  his 
passions,  like  a  whale  on  ground,  confound  themselves  with 
working." — SHAKSPERE. 


1147.  Why  may  a  fish  be  "drowned"  when  leing  "played" 
ly  an  angler? 

Because  fishes  breathe  by  passing  water,  which  always  holds 
common  air  in  solution,  through  their  gills,  by  the  use  of  a  series 
of  muscles  connected  with  them. 

When  a  fish  is  hooked  in  the  upper  part  of  the  mouth,  it  is 
scarcely  possible  for  him  to  set  the  muscles  in  action  which 
move  the  gills,  while  the  rod  is  applied  as  a  lever  to  the 
line,  so  that  no  aerated  water  can  be  respired. 

1148.  A  fish,  hooked  in  a  part  of  the  mouth  where  the  force  of  the  rod  will  render 
his  efforts  to  respire  unavailing,  is  much  in  the  same  state  as  that  of  a  deer  caught 
round  the  neck  by  the  lasso  of  a  South  American  peon,  who  gallops  forwards 
dragging  his  victim  after  him,  which  is  killed  by  strangulation  in  a  very  short 
time.  When  fishes  are  hooked  foul— thai  is,  on  the  outside  of  the  body,  as  in  the 
fins  or  tail — they  will  often  fight  for  many  hours,  and  in  such  cases  Tery  largo 
salmon  are  seldom  caught,  as  they  retain  their  powers  of  breathing  unimpaired : 
and  if  they  do  not  exhaust  themselves  by  violent  muscular  efforts,  they  may  bid 
defiance  to  the  temper  and  the  skill  of  the  fisherman.* 

1149.  Why    is  the  migration  of  fishes   of    great   importance 
to   mankind  1 

It  is  by  these  migrations  that  the  blessings  of  fissh  diet  are 
periodically  bestowed  upon  the  inhabitants  of  shores  remote  from 
each  other.  If  such  fishes  were  constant  residents  in  any  one 
locality,  we  might  feed  on  them  to  satiety  ;  but,  by  a  temporary 
privation,  we  learn  to  estimate  the  value  of  the  treat,  and  to 
hope  for  the  periodical  return. 

1150.  Why   do  fishes  generally  spawn  in  shallow  waters? 
Because  a  certain  degree  of  solar  heat  and  light  is  necessary 

for  quickening  the  eggs  into  life  ;  and  also  because  the  young  fry 
are  thereby  protected  from  large  fish. 

1151.     Why    does     the    sea    sometimes  + exhibit    a    luminous 
appearance  ? 

Because  of  the  great  numbers  of  medusa,  or  jelly  animalculse, 
which,  being  congregated  in  one  part,  under  certain  conditions 
emit  a  phosphorescent  light. 

*  "  Salmoiiia." 


354  THE   REASON   WHY! 


Order  is  Heaven's  first  law  ;   and,  this  confess'd, 
Some  are,  and  must  be,  greater  than  the  rest." — POPE. 


1152.  Wliy    does    the    sea    contain  a  certain    proportion    of 
saline  matter? 

These  saline  matters  have  the  effect  of  raising  the  freezing  point, 
and  diminishing  the  tendency  to  give  off  vapours  ;  and,  also, 
because  it  renders  the  water  more  buoyant,  and  thus  makes  it 
better  fitted  to  support  the  animals  which  it  contains. 

[The  Author  finds  himself  reluctantly  compelled  to  omit  the 
various  Orders  comprising  the  Division  MOLLUSCA.  Tlie  Entomo 
logical  series  alone  would  supply  matter  for  a  highly  interesting 
volume ;  and  in  the  Jiope  that  he  may  be  soon  able  to  present  such 
a  work  to  his  readers,  the  Author  will  close  his  present  labours, 
with  a  few  questions  of  leading  application.] 

1153.  Why    has  every  race  of  animals  its  appointed   enemy, 
or  enemies  ? 

Because  birth,  life,  and  death,  constitute  the  order  of  nature 
appointed  by  a  Divine  Being.  This  order  established,  it  may  be 
accepted  that  the  Infinite  Wisdom  whose  works  exhibit  such 
marvellous  adaptation  and  perfection,  has  chosen  the  best  means 
to  a  necessary  end.  The  death  of  an  animal,  as  the  prey  of  an 
appointed  superior,  is  doubtless  a  more  rapid  and  painless  process 
than  we,  with  a  dread  of  death,  conceive. 

1154.  Paley  reasons  upon  this  proposition  in  a  conclusive  manner: — "  Perha-ps 
there  is  no  species  of  terrestrial  animals  whatever,  which  would  not  overrun  the 
earth  if  it  were  permitted  to  multiply  in  perfect  safety  ;  or  of  a  fish  which  would 
not  fill  the  ocean  :  at  least,  if  any  single  species  were  left  to  their  natural  increase 
without  disturbance  or  restraint,  the  food  of  other  species  would  be  exhausted  by 
their  maintenance. 

"It  is  necessary  therefore,  that  the  effects  of  such  prolific  faculties  be  curtailed. 
In  conjunction  with  other  checks  and  limits,  all  subservient  to  the  same  purpose, 
tre  the  thinnings  which  take  place  among  animals  by  their  action  upon  one  another. 
In  some  instances,  we  ourselves  experience,  very  directly,  the  use  of  thcso  hos 
tilities.  One  species  of  insects  rids  us  of  another  species,  or  reduces  their  ranks ;  a 
third  species,  perhaps,  keeps  the  second  within  bounds ;  and  birds  or  lizards  are  a 
fence  against  the  inordinate  increase  by  which  even  these  might  infest  us." 

To  this  may  be  added,  that  MAN  alone  appears  to  be  without  a  natural  cn^my, 
gifted  \vith  a  special  instinct  and  an  organization  intended  to  effect  his  conuue^. 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


355 


Cease,  then,  nor  order  imperfection  name  : 

Our  proper  bliss  depends  on  what  we  blame." — POPE. 


The  web  of  the  spider  is  a  beautiful  contrivance,  evidently  designed  to  ensnare  flies. 
The  scent  by  which  the  stoat  pursues  the  rabbit ;  the  teeth  with  which  the  former 
perforates  the  neck  of  its  victim,  and  the  instinct  which  guides  it  to  attack  the 
neck,  are  three  special  means  bestowed  for  a  given  end.  The  gaping  mouths  of 
swallows  and  night-jars  are  manifestly  conceived  for  the  purpose  of  capturimg 
insects  in  the  most  certain  manner.  Although  man  is  born  the  most  defenceless  of 
all  creatures,  there  is  not  a  single  animal  gifted  with  an  instinct  to  pursue  him, 
and  armed  icith  weapons  adapted  to  give  effect  to  that  instinct.  The  elephant,  the 
lion,  and  the  tiger,  although  endowed  with  strength  by  which  they  could  imme 
diately  crush  him,  all  retire  from  and  avoid  his  presence,  unless  he  trespasses  upon 
their  haunts,  or  they  are  driven  to  extremities  of  rage  or  hunger  by  restraints  which 
he  imposes  upon  them.  Regarded  as  enemies  to  man,  their  armatures  are  too 
formidable  :  the  tusks  of  the  elephant,  and  the  talons  or  teeth  of  the  lion  and  tiger, 
might  be  dispensed  with,  and  they  would  still  be  immensely  his  superiors  in  the 
balance  of  natural  powers.  Even  the  vermin  that  sometimes  surround  and  annoy 
man,  are  the  enemies  of  his  negligence  and  vices,  and  not  of  himself.  On  the 
contrary,  the  whole  of  the  animal  creation,  in  some  form  or  other,  are  friends  of 
man,  and  contributors  to  his  need. 

1155.  TABLE  OF  THE  FECUNDITY  OF  VARIOUS  ANIMALS. 


Bears 
Elephant    . 
Hippopotamus 

1 
1 
1 

Wren  . 
Fish. 

10  to  16 
Eggs  at  a  spawning. 
205,000 

Leopard 
Lion 

2  to  4 
2  to  4 

Codfish 

,         .         3,686,000 

Rhinoceros. 
Birds. 

1 

Eggs  at  a  sitting. 

Flounders 
Herring      . 
Mackerel 
Perch  . 

,        .        .    1,357,000 
36,000 
.       MG.OOO 
28,000 
49,000 

Eagle 

2  to  3 

81,000 

Falcon 

2  to  4 

Smelt 

38,000 

Fowl  (domestic) 

.      6  to  20 

Sole 

100,000 

Hawk.        .        . 
Owl 

2  to  4 
2  to  6 

Tench     . 

.       383,000 

Partridge    . 
Pheasant 

14  to  20 
.       ..     10  to  20 
4  to  6 

Insects. 

Eggs  in  a  season. 
10,000 

2  to  5 

2,000 

Stork  . 

2  or  3 

House-fly 

.  20,000,000 

In   five  generations  one  aphis  may  produce   5,000,000,000,  and  there  are  20 
generations  in  a  year.    The  numbers  are  beyond  calculation. 

1156.   Why    does    the    duration    of    life    of    different    tribx 
greatly  vary  ? 

The  longevity   of   eninial  races  appears   to  be   in  the  inverse 
ratio  of  their  fecundity.      The  wisdom  of  this  arrangement  i« 


356 


THE    REASON   WHY  : 


NO    MORE   THE    PATHS   OF   MISTY   DOUBT    I    TROD  I 
MY   REASON    SAW,   MY    SOUL   CONFESSED,    A   GOD  I  ' 


apparent :  if  musquitoes  and  locusts  prolific  as  they  are,  were 
appointed  to  live  from  a  quarter  to  half  a  century,  in  spite  of  all 
existing  natural  checks,  they  would  render  every  other  form  of 
existence  impossible.  If  lions  and  tigers,  living  for.  half  a  century, 
and  possessed  of  enormous  powers,  were  to  multipy  as  rapidly  as 
insects,  they  would  overrun  creation,  unless,  indeed,  they 
destroyed  each  other. 

1157.   TABLE   OF  THE   LIFE  PERIODS   OF   VARIOUS  ANIMALS. 


Ass,  from     "  .        .        . 

Years. 
25  to  50 

Years. 
14  to  23 

Antelope     .        .        .        . 

16  to  18 

60 

Bee  (female)  .... 

4 

Llama     ... 

15 

Bear   

20 

Lynx  

16 

Beetle  

Blackbird        . 

50 
1  to  4 

10  to  12 

Mar  gay       .        .        .        . 

10 
16  to  17 
16  to  18 

Blackcap    .... 

15 
10 

Nightingale 
Ocelot 

16  to  18 
16  to  19 

Bull    
Camel,  from                              . 

30 
50  to  60 

Ox  employed  in  agriculture 

It 

100 

Canary,  if  it  does  not  couple 
Carp,  from      .... 
C'lt 

24 
100  to  150 

18 

Peacock      .... 
Pelican    .... 

24 
Ifl  to  50 
15 

Chaffinch         .        .   •    . 

20  to  24 

20 

Chamois      .... 
Civet  cat                                   . 

25 
12  to  14 

Pike,  sometimes  more  than 

100 
30 

Cod 

14  to  17 

g     to    9 

Cow  sometimes  more  than    . 

20 

12 

24 

Raven          .... 

\00 

Cray-fish         .        .        .        . 

20 

16 

Crocodile    .... 

100 
100 

Rhinoceros. 
Redbreast       .... 

20 
10  tc  12 

20 

Salmon       .... 

10 

30 

Scorpion.        ... 

23  to  28 

Serval  .... 

16  to  IS 

Eel  

10 

10 

Eagle  
Ephemera  (from  egg  to  imago) 
Ephemera  (as  a  perfect  fly) 

100 
3 

Skylark       .... 
Sparrow-hawk       .        . 

10  to  30 
40 
1 

2    or    3 

7 

Ehcmera  (other  kinds)  hours. 

2    or    3 

150  to  200 

Stag,  under 

50 
10  tc  12 

15 

10) 

10 

Tench      . 

10 

Goat                .... 

10 

Thrush        .        . 

8  to  10 

Goldfinch    .... 

10  to  16 

5'  > 

Tiger  and  Leopard  . 

25 
16  to  18 

7    to    8 

Titlark    . 

5  to    6 

60 

Toad    ... 

20  to  30 

20 

100 

Horse      

25  to  30 

6  to    7 

Hyenas       .... 

25  to  30 
25 

Wheatear        .... 
Wolf  .... 

2 
20 

Lark  ..... 

16  to  18 

Wren      

2  to    3 

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YALE  COLLEGE  SCRAPES ;  or,  How  the  Boys  Go  It 
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•*-  WAR.  A  History  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Campaigns,  in  relation  to  the 
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WORTH'S  BOOK  OF  LOVE-LETTERS.  With  directions 

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HOW  GAMBLERS  WIN;  or,  The  Secrets  of  Advantage 
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Containing  the  mode  of  forming  and  conducting  Societies,  Clubs  and  other 
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"FROST'S   BOOK   OF   TABLEAUX.     Containing  one 

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The  reason 

why 

foOV   9      1936 

935180 


BIOLOGY 
UBRARY 

8 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


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